How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower

by Adrian Goldsworthy

  24. See Drake (2006), esp. pp. 111-112, 115-116, 131-132-, and Edwards (2006), pp. 142,-145; for the emperor reading scriptures, Eusebius, Life of Constantine 4. 17, see also Odahl (2004), pp. 137-139.

  2,5- See M. Johnson, 'Architecture of Empire', in Lenski (2006), pp. 2,78-2,97, esp. 282-288, 292-295, and Grant (1993), pp. 189-2,07-

  26. Mitchell (1998), pp. 66-68; Odahl (2004), pp. 11o-112, and Johnson (2006), p. 280.

  27- On the Arch, see Odahl (2004), pp. 141-144, Johnson (2006), p. 2,81, Potter (2004), pp. 360-362, S. Mitchell, A History of the Later Roman Empire AD 284- 641(2007), pp. 158-163-

  z8. Johnson (2006), pp. 291-292, Grant (1993), pp. 116-122, Odahl (2004), pp. 221-223, 232-244, and Potter (2004), pp. 383-386.

  29. Libanius, Orations 30. 6; for a good discussion of the question, see A. Lee, `Traditional Religions', in Lenski (ed.) (2006), pp. 159-179, esp. pp. 174-175.

  30. On sacrifice, see Lee (2006), pp. 173-174, esp. n. 69; on other legislation, see A. Cameron, in CAH2 XII (2005), pp. 95-7, Jones (1964), p. 92, and Mitchell (2,007), pp. 68-69.

  31. Jones (1964), pp. 92-93, and Odahl (2004), p. 250.

  32. Drake (2,oo6), pp. 116-121, Odahl (2,004), pp. 12,9-141, Grant (1993), pp. 164-167, and Potter (2004), pp. 402,-410.

  33. Drake (2006), pp. 12,3-12,5, Potter (2004), pp. 410-420, Odahl (2004), pp. 190-199, Jones (1964), pp. 86-89.

  34. Jones (1964), pp. 90-92, 93-97, and Lane Fox (1988), pp. 609-662.

  35. For discussion of these aspects, see C. Kelly, 'Bureaucracy and Government', in Lenski (ed.) (2006), pp. 183-204, and H. Elton, `Warfare and the Military, in Lenski (zoo6), PP. 325-346•

  36. Grant (1993), pp. 110-115, Odahl (2,004), Pp. zo4-208, Lenski (ed.) (zoo6), pp. 78-79, Potter (2004), pp. 380-3821-

  37. Drijvers (1992), PP. 55-72.

  38. For the wars with the Goths, see M. Kulikowski, Rome's Gothic Wars (2007), pp. 80-86; for feeding Frankish kings to the wild beasts, see Pan. Lat. 7(6). 42,, 6(7). to. z-ii.6, 4(10). 16. 5-6, Eutropius, Breviarum 10. 3. 2.

  39. For sources for Constantine's relations with Persia, see M. Dodgeon & S. Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, AD 226--363 (1991), pp. 145-163. The quote is taken from the extract from Eusebius, Life of Constantine 4. 8-13, PP. 150-152; see also T. Barnes, `Constantine and the Christians of Persia,' JRS, 75 (1985), pp. 126-136.

  40. Odahl (2004), PP- 274-275, and Grant (1993), 211-214.

  1o-Rivals

  1. Zosimus 2. 39 (trans. J. Buchanan & H. Davies, Zosimus: Historia Nova: The Decline of Rome, 1967)-

  2. Julian, Letter to the Athenians 270c-271b (trans. Wright) from N. Lenski (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the age of Constantine (2006), p. 98.

  3. See R. Burgess, `The Summer of Blood', Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 61 (forthcoming, 2008).

  4. The main sources for the death of Constantine II include Zosimus 2. 3940, Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 41, who states that the army refused to accept anyone other than the sons of Constantine; for fuller accounts and discussion, see R. Frakes, `The Dynasty of Constantine down to 363', in Lenski (2006) pp. 91-107, esp. 94-99, D. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 18o-395 (2004), PP. 459-462, D. Hunt, in CAH2 XIII (1998), pp. 1-5, and A. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-603, Vol. 1 (1964), p. 112.

  5. For Constans having only one officer with him when he was captured, see Ammianus Marcellinus 15. 5. 16.

  6. In general, see Frakes (2006), pp. too-tot, Potter (2004), PP. 471-474, Hunt, in CAH1 XIII (1998), pp. 10-11, 14-22, Jones (1964), pp. 112-113; see Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 42, and Ammianus Marcellinus 15. 5. 33 on defection of Silvanus.

  7. Quotation from Ammianus Marcellinus 15. 1. 2; for the career of Gallus, see Frakes (2006), pp. 101-102, Potter (2004), pp. 474-476, Hunt, in CAHZ XIII (1998), PP. 24-25, and G. Bowersock, Julian the Apostate (1978), pp. 21-47; Ammianus provides the most detailed account, 14. 1, 7, 9, 11, 15. 1.

  8. For differing views on Ammianus as a source see J. Matthews, The Roman Empire of Ammianus (1989), T Barnes, Ammianus and the Representation of Historical Reality (1998), and the papers in J. Drijvers & D. Hunt (eds.), The Late Roman World and its Historian (1999); for a discussion of the military aspects of his work, see N. Austin, Ammianus on Warfare: An Investigation Into Ammianus'Military Knowledge, Collection Latomus, 165 (1979); for a discussion of his career, see Barnes (1998), pp. 54-64.

  9. For discussion of his coverage of Gallus, see Barnes (1998), pp. 129-142.

  io. See esp. Ammianus Marcellinus 14. I. 4-8, 5. 1-9, 15. 3. 1-11; Paul `the chain' is first mentioned at 14. 5. 6-9, `the count of dreams' is mentioned in 15. 3. 5-

  11. For Ursicinus, see Ammianus Marcellinus 15. 2. 1-6; on administration in general, see C. Kelly, Ruling the Later Roman Empire (2004), and the very useful review of this by G. Greatrex in Phoenix, 6o (2006), pp. 178-181.

  1z. For Silvanus' father, see Ammianus Marcellinus 15. 5. 33; for specific discussion on the number of Alamanni in Roman service, seej. Drink-water, The Alamanni and Rome 213-496 (2007), pp. 145-159.

  13. Ammianus Marcellinus 15. 6. 3.

  14. Quote from Ammianus Marcellinus 15. 5. 23.

  15. Ammianus Marcellinus 15. 5. 31-32.

  16. The full account is Ammianus Marcellinus 15. 5. 1-6. 4; for the accusations against Ursicinus, see 15. 5. 36; for discussion, see D. Hunt, `The Outsider Inside: Ammianus on the Rebellion of Silvanus', in Drijvers & Hunt (1999), pp. 5163, and Matthews (1989), pp. 36-38, 81-83.

  17. Twenty-eight-day reign from Jerome, Chron. s.a. 354, Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 42. 16, and Julian, Oration 2. 99a, who says under a month.

  18. Ammianus Marcellinus 16. 10. 6-7, 9-10-

  ii-Enemies

  i. Claudius Mamertinus, Latin Panegyric XI (3). 3, translation by M. Morgan in S. Lieu (ed.), The Emperor Julian: Panegyric and Polemic (2nd edn, 1989), p. 14.

  2. M. Goodman, The Roman World 44 BC-AD 18o (1997), pp. 81-84, argues that Augustus maintained a standing army first and foremost to defend himself against internal rivals. This was ceratinly a factor, but it does not explain why the army needed to be so large.

  3. For the origin and meaning of the term, see B. Isaac, `The Meaning of the Terms Limes and Limitanei', JRS, 78 (1988), pp. 125-147; On raiding, see H. Elton, Warfare in Roman Europe AD 35o-425 (1996), p. 206.

  4. Zosimus 2. 33 claims that Constantine created the rank of Master of Soldiers.

  5. For the army in general, see Elton (1996), esp. 89-117, M. Nicasie, Twilight of Empire (1998), K. Dixon & P. Southern, The Late Roman Army (1996), Y. Le Bohec, L'armee Romaine sous le Bas-Empire (2006), A. Lee, in CAH2 XII I (1998), PP. 213-237, A. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-6o3, vol. 1 (1964), pp. 607686, and D. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180-395 (2004), PP- 448-459•

  6. For discussion of the size of the army, see R. MacMullen, `How Big was the Roman Imperial Army?', Klio, 62 (1980), pp. 451-460, Jones (1964), pp. 679685, and W. Treadgold, Byzantium and its Army, 284-1081(1995), pp• 43-59-

  7. For discussion of the papyrus, see R. Duncan-Jones, `Pay and Numbers in Diocletian's Army', Chiron, 8 (1978), pp. 541-560, and in general, T. Coello, Unit Sizes in the Late Roman Army, BAR International Series, 645 (1996); for XIII Gemina, see Notitia Dignitatum Or. 42. 34-38, 28. 15, 8. 6 and discussion in J. Casey, `The Legions in the Later Roman Empire', in R. Brewer (ed.), The Second Augustan Legion and the Roman Military Machine (2oo2), pp. 165-176.

  8. SeeElton (1996), pp. 89-90, Coello (1996), pp. 59-64; Ammianus Marcellinus 31. 10. 1z mentions detachments of 500 men apparently drawn from each legion, which would indicate that these units were larger than this.

  9. Potter (2004), PP- 456-457 is one of very few scholars to suggest tentatively that the army may actually have been smaller in the fourth century.

  to. Jones (1964), pp. 614-623, Elton (1996), pp. 128-154, Potter (2,o04), PP- 457459, 687 fn. 74 for references to laws dealing with self-mutilation; Ammianus Marcellinus 15. 12. 3 claims this was especially common in Italy; for the equestrian
under Augustus, see Suetonius, Augustus 24. 1; for desire to serve in the limitanei, see R. Tomlin, `Christianity and the Roman Army, in S. Lieu & D. Montserrat (eds.), Constantine: History, Historiography and Legend (1998), pp. 21-51, esp. PP. 22-24.

  ii. Elton (1996), p. ioi, Jones (1964), pp. 633-634.

  12. The fullest expression of this view is in E. Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire from the First Century AD to the Third (1976), pp. 127-190; for criticism, see amongst others D. Whittaker, Frontiers of the Roman Empire: A Social and Economic Study (1994), pp. 206-209, who is especially critical of the idea of `defence in depth'; on the army in general, see Le Bohec (zoo6), esp. pp. 16-37,97-107.

  13. Zosimus 2. 34 (trans. J. Buchanan & H. Davies, Zosimus: Historia Nova: the decline of Rome (1967), p. 76; for the tendency of armies left idle in large camps to mutiny, see Tacitus, Annals 1. 16-17, 20-21.

  14. This is fully explored in E. Wheeler, `The Laxity of the Syrian Legions', in D. Kennedy (ed.), The Roman Army in the East (1996), pp. 229-276.

  15. See Elton (1996), pp. 107-117, 250-263, M. Bishop & J. Coulston, Roman Military Equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome (2nd edn, 2006), pp. 199-232, I. Stephenson, Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment (2006) and 1. Stephenson & K. Dixon, Roman Cavalry Equipment (2003).

  16. On the comitatenses and their deployment, see Elton (1996), pp. 89-99, 199233.

  17. Ammianus Marcellinus 15. 8. i-22; the soldiers' showing their approval

  15. 8. 15; on the attitude of our sources to Julian, see G. Bowersock, Julian the Apostate (1978), pp. 1-11, T. Barnes, Ammianus Marcellinus and the Representation of Historical Reality (1998), pp. 143-165, and the sources collected and commented upon in S. Tougher, Julian the Apostate (2007); on Julian's promotion to Caesar, see J. Matthews, The Roman Empire ofAmmianus (1989), pp. 81-90.

  18. In general, see Elton (1996), pp. 15-88, J. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213-496.• Caracalla to Clovis (2007), passim, T. Burns, Rome and the Barbarians 100 BC-AD 400 (2003), pp. 309-362, H. Wolfram, The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples (1997), Pp. 51-101, forty-five captured towns, see Julian, Letter to the Athenians 278d-279b; for recovery of Roman captives, see Ammianus Marcellinus 17. 10. 7-8, 18. 2. 19, Zosimus 3. 3. 4-7-

  19. On trade in stone and iron from east of the Rhine, see Drinkwater (2007), PP. 133-134; Magnentius' use of barbarians, see Drinkwater (2007), pp. 201205.

  2,o. Julian, Letter to the Athenians 123d-124d on reading Caesar's Commentaries, on his early life, see Bowersock (1978), pp. 12-32.

  21. On the campaign in general see the analysis in Drinkwater (2007), PP- 2,19-2,24, and Barnes (1998), pp. 151-155; in the case of the ballistarii it remains possible that the unit had consisted of artillerymen at some earlier date, but that they were now simply ordinary infantry. In the end, we just do not know.

  22. For the campaign, see Ammianus Marcellinus 16. 2. 1-3. 3; the delay in being admitted to Troyes is 16. 2. 7.

  23. Ammianus Marcellinus 16. 4. 1-5, 7. 1-3.

  24. On the campaign and battle, see Ammianus Marcellinus 16. 11. 1-12. 66, with Drinkwater (2007), PP. 224-242, Bowersock (1978), PP. 40-42, Barnes (1998), p. 152, and A. Goldsworthy, In the Name ofRome (2003), PP. 340-354 = (2004), PP. 383-399; on the misbehaviour of the Roman cavalry, see Zosimus 3. 3.

  25. Ammianus Marcellinus 17. 1. 1-14; on frontier relations in general in this period, seeA. Lee, (1993).

  26. Ammianus Marcellinus 17. 2. 1-4.

  27. For the remaining operations in Gaul, see the discussion in Drinkwater (2007), pp. 242-265; for taxation, see Ammianus Marcellinus 17. 3. 1-6.

  28. Ammianus Marcellinus 17. 11. 1-5, 18. 1. 1-4, 20. 4. 1-5. 10, with Bowersock (1978), PP. 46-54.

  29. Fora more detailed narrative, see Potter (2004), pp. 505-5o8, Bowersock (1978), pp. 55-65, and Hunt, in CAH2 XIII (1998), pp. 56-6o; for the despatch of the comes to Britain and his subsequent arrest see Ammianus Marcellinus 20. 1. 1-3, 9. 9-

  30. Ammianus Marcellinus 28. 5. 1-7-

  31. Quotation from Ammianus Marcellinus 27. 2. 11 (Loeb translation); for raiders dyeing their hair, seeAmmianus Marcellinus 27. 2. 1-3.

  12-The Pagan

  L Julian, Letter to the Athenians 28od, 281b-c (Loeb translation, M. Wright, The Works of the Emperor Julian, Vol. II, 1913).

  2. Ammianus Marcellinus 22. 3. 1-12; see also N. Lenski, The Failure ofEmpire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century AD (2002), p. 104.

  3. On Julian's beliefs, see the discussions in G. Bowersock, Julian the Apostate (1978), pp. 12-20, 61-65, D. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 18o-395 (2004), PP. 496-499, 508-509, and G. Fowden, in CAH2 XIII (1998), pp. 543 548; A. Murdoch, The Last Pagan: Julian theApostate and the Death oftheAncient World (2003), is an accessible recent survey of Julian's life, and see pp. 9-37 on his early life and beliefs.

  4. Julian, Hymn to the Sun 13ob-c, 132c (Loeb translation, Wright, 1913).

  5. Ammianus Marcellinus 22. 4. 1-10, 7. 5-8; for Maximus of Ephesus, see Ammianus Marcellinus 22. 7. 3-4.

  6. For this period, seethe sources in M. Dodgeon & S. Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226-363 (1991), pp. 143-210.

  7. Ammianus Marcellinus 16. 9. 1-4, 17. 5. 1-15, with J. Matthews, The Roman Empire ofAmmianus (1989), pp. 39-47, and Dodgeon & Lieu (1991), pp. 211212.

  8. On the campaign and siege, see Ammianus Marcellinus 18. 4. 1-19. 9. 9.

  9. Ammianus Marcellinus 19. 9. 9 claims that Shapur suffered 30,000 casualties during the siege of Amida; for the trail of hamstrung prisoners, see Ammianus Marcellinus 19. 6. 2, with A. Lee, War in LateAntiquity: A Social History (2007), pp. 135-138; for the capture of Singara and Bezabde, seeAmmianus Marcellinus 20. 6.1-7- 18.

  10. Ammianus Marcellinus 20. 11. 1-25, 31-32.

  ii. For the war, see Ammianus Marcellinus 22. 12. 1-4, with Matthews (1989), pp. 134-140, Potter (2004), PP. 514-520, and D. Hunt, in CAH' XIII (1998), PP- 73-77-

  12. The collapse of the stockpiled fodder, see Ammianus Marcellinus 23. 2. 8; for sacrifices, see Ammianus Marcellinus 22. 12. 1-3, 6-7; for Antioch, see Ammianus Marcellinus 22. 9. 1-10. 7; for army size, seeAmmianus Marcellinus 23. 3. 5, 24. 7. 4, 25. 7. 2, and Zosimus 3. 13 and discussion in Matthews (1989), pp.166-169.

  13. See Ammianus Marcellinus 24. 2. 15-17; see also the discussion in J. Lendon, Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity (zoo5), pp. 290309.

  14. See Ammianus Marcellinus 24. 4. 1-5; for the stories about Africanus and Alexander, see Polybius 10. 18. 1-19. 7, Livy 26. 49. 11-50. 14, and Plutarch, Alexander 21.

  15. For the campaign as a whole Dodgeon & Lieu (1991), pp. 231-274 surveys the sources.

  16. For the Persian campaign, see Matthews (1989), pp. 130-179; on Julian's death, see Ammianus Marcellinus 25. 3. 1-23, with Potter (2004), p. 518 and Lenski (2002), p. 14 for the date.

  17. See Ammianus Marcellinus 25. 5. 1-8; on Jovian's elevation, see Matthews (1989), pp. 180-184, Lenski (2002), pp. 14-20.

  18. Ammianus Marcellinus 25. 7. 1-14, 9. 1-13 and Lenski (2002), pp. 16o-161; Ammianus and the sources for the treaty are gathered in G. Greatrex & S. Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars. Part 2 AD 363-630 (2002), PP- 1-9.

  19. See Lenski (2002), pp. 214-217; for Jerusalem, see Ammianus Marcellinus 23. 1. 1-3-

  20. Julian, The Caesars 336a-b (Loeb translation, Wright, 1913).

  21. Ammianus Marcellinus 22. 10. 7, with Bowersock (1978), pp. 70-71, 79-93, Potter (2004), pp. 508-514, and Fowden, in CAH2 XIII (1998), pp. 543-548.

  22. See H. Chadwick, in CAH2 XIII (1998), pp. 561-6oo for the church in general; for the dramatic career of an especially controversial bishop of Alexandria, see T. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire (1993); on monasticism, see P. Brown, `The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquiy, JRS, 61 (1971), pp. 8o1-1o, and Asceticism: Pagan and Christian', in CAR' XIII (1998), pp. 601-631, and `Christianization and Religious Conflict', in CAH2 XIII (1998
), pp. 632-664, esp. p. 639 discussing the origins of the word `pagan'.

  23. Ammianus Marcellinus 25. 11. 1-13. 1, with Lenski (2002), pp. 20-22.

  24. Ammianus Marcellinus 26. 4. r, with Lenski (2002), pp. 14-45.

  25. For the sources of friction between Rome and Persia, see Greatrex & Lieu (2002), pp. io-i6.

  26. Ammianus Marcellinus z6. 5. 13; for the rebellion as a whole, see the discussion in Lenski (zooz), pp. 68-115, and Matthews (1989), pp. 193-2,03.

  27. Lenski (2002), pp. 104-109.

  28. See C. Kelly, Ruling the Later Roman Empire (2004), passim, but esp. pp. 20-34.

  29. Ammianus Marcellinus 28. 5. 1-7-

  30. See Kelly (2004), pp. 36-44, 64-104, and 107, 138-143 on the Timgad inscription; for an especially critical view of administration in this period, see R. MacMullen, Corruption and the Decline of Rome (1988), pp. 137-170-

  31. Kelly (2004), p. 207, MacMullen (1988), pp. 149-150, and A. Jones, The Later Roman Empire. 284-602, Vol. 1 (1964), pp. 126-130, 396-401.

  32,. Ammianus Marcellinus 28. 6. 1-3o.

  33. A. Sherwin-White, The Letters ofPliny: A Historical and Social Commentary (1966), pp. 80-82, 525-528.

  34. For instance, the discussion in P. Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History (2005), pp. 103-110, who sees this as a general result of poor communications in the ancient world rather than a particular reflection of fourth-century administration.

  13-Goths

  i. Ammianus Marcellinus 31. 13. 10-12.

  z. Ammianus Marcellinus 30. 6. 1-6.

  3. On the dominance of senior officers and bureaucrats, see D. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 18o-3,95 (2004), pp. 533-546.

  4. N. Lenski, The Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman state in the Fourth Century AD (2002), pp. 14-45, and esp. 56-67.

  5. See P. Heather, Goths and Romans 332-489 (1991), pp. 12-18, 84-121, and The Goths (1996), pp. 51-93, H. Wolfram, The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples (1997), pp. 69-72, M. Kulikowski, Rome's Gothic Wars (2007), pp. 43-