Roam: Time Walkers World Special Edition

by E. B. Brown

  It is well-known that the colonial settlers introduced many diseases and maladies to the Indians, such as smallpox and measles, and since the native population had no immunity, those diseases caused a devastating number of deaths. Bacterial diseases such as tuberculosis and syphilis, however, were already present prior to the arrival of European colonists. Unfortunately, death from infection and disease was one of the causes for lowered life expectancy in the seventeenth century, no matter which culture one hailed from. Return to text

  Note 7: A note about theory of time travel

  Einstein's theory of relativity says that time speeds up or slows down depending on how fast you move in relation to something else. If a person somehow traveled at the speed of light (in a spaceship or any via any other device), then the person would age much slower than his counterparts who were not traveling at light speed. Technology of space travel illustrates this theory when satellites are in orbit around the earth at high speeds; when the satellites are returned to earth, the internal clocks have gained 38 microseconds per day, essentially showing that the devices time traveled. Although there have been many theories of time travel since Einstein, the very possibility of it continues to captivate scientists and laymen alike. Is time travel possible? I like to think so, and as long as readers agree, I’ll continue writing stories in this genre. Return to text

  Note 8: Horses.

  For the purpose of this story, I chose to incorporate horses, although I am aware that the Paspahegh used dugout canoes as the primary means of travel up and down the waterways. Since the Paspahegh villages disappeared shortly after the arrival of the colonists, those few that remained likely integrated to live with the English settlers or left the area to blend with other tribes. By 1611 there were many domesticated animals at Jamestown and it is known that the Powhatan took interest in them. Horses, goats, pigs, and dogs were some of the animals that were new to the Powhatan. Of the scattered Paspahegh people that remained, it seemed plausible that they may have adopted English ways, including managing and use of domesticated animals.

  I didn’t pull the horse thing out of thin air, however. The Chincoteague is a breed of wild horse that lives on Assateague Island in Virginia and Maryland. Due to the poor diet these horses consume and an influx of bloodlines from various breeds that have been introduced into the herd over the years, they are typically shorter and referred to as ponies.

  Legend says that the horses were survivors from Spanish galleons that sank in the waters off of Virginia centuries ago. Supporters of the theory claim the wreckage of two sunken galleons can be reportedly found off the Virginia coast. In the early seventeenth century, settlers already had extensive contact with many of the Indian tribes, and the Paspahegh were known to be one of the first. It was plausible to the fictional Time Walkers world that the Paspahegh may have been accustomed to the wild ponies, and that in dealings with the English they may have acquired horses from the settlers in trade or as gifts. It was with this in mind that I decided to incorporate horses into the story. Return to text

  Note 9: Winn’s education and language

  In the early seventeenth century, relations between the Indians and the settlers were in a constant state of upheaval. There were many attempts, however, made by both sides to find ways to live peacefully with and understand each other. Converting Virginia’s Indians to Christianity was a priority to King James, so the English settlers formed relationships with the Indians with that thought foremost in their minds. Chief Powhatan had already been through similar issues with the Spaniards (which resulted in Powhatan exterminating all of the Spanish missionaries in the late sixteenth century), and it appears that he took a different approach with the English. It was not unheard of for the Powhatan to send their children to live with the English for a period of time, during which they were schooled in religion, language, and English customs. In fact, the English established a school at the town of Henricus that was built to teach Indian children. This was such a priority to King James that he ordered one hundred English tenants to be sent to work ten thousand acres of school land to provide income to support the school, and a large amount of money was raised by churches throughout England to get the school up and running. Chief Powhatan understood the need to communicate with the outsiders and having his own people schooled enough to provide translation for interactions was of immense value.

  Winn is the son of one of Opechancanough’s sisters (Opechancanough was a brother to Chief Powhatan); as leadership in the Powhatan society is based on matrilineal bloodlines, Winn is considered to be a favorite nephew of Opechancanough. Winn was sent to live with the English in order to learn their ways so that he could be an asset to his people. Winn was born at a time where he was exposed to a variety of cultures; as a young man he learned to communicate with the Spanish and the English, and he had the opportunity to learn many languages. When Winn and Maggie meet in 1622, she is surprised that they can understand each other, yet by that point, in time many of the younger members of Powhatan society were versed in English. Return to text

  Note 10: Opechancanough

  Opechancanough was the brother of Chief Powhatan, the ruler who organized and ruled the Powhatan Confederacy. After Powhatan’s death in 1618, there was a short time where their brother, Opitchipam, ruled, however, by late 1618 Opechancanough assumed control. Opechancanough was a fierce warrior and brilliant strategist who harbored a deep mistrust and hate for the English. He was the leader who organized the Great Assault of 1622, during which he led dozens of Powhatan tributary tribes in a coordinated, surprise attack upon the English at all of the English hundreds along the James River. The massive endeavor was a vivid example of Opechancanough’s skill as a tactician and leader. He led the Powhatan people for nearly thirty years until his death in 1646 at what is thought to be more than ninety years of age. Return to text

  Note 11: Yehakins

  Powhatan women constructed the living quarters for their families called Yehakins. Yehakins were semi-permanent structures built with moderately flexible sapling frames and covered with either bark or woven reeds. During the warmer months, the reeds or back could be rolled up or removed to promote air flow circulation, and during the winter months a fire in the center of the yehakin kept it cozy and warm. Return to text

  Note 12: Paspahegh People

  The Paspahegh people were one of the tributary tribes of the Powhatan Paramount Chiefdom, known as Tsenacomoco. They were Algonquian-speaking Virginia Indians who lived in the the Tidewater region at the time of European settlement, one of at least thirty tribes under the umbrella of Chief Powhatan. Each tributary tribe had its own Weroance who ruled in his or her own right and each tribe had particular customs and behaviors unique to that tribe. At the time of English settlement, the Weroance of the Paspahegh was named Wowinchapuncke.

  It is reported that the colonists first encountered the Paspahegh upon arrival in 1607 and that Paspahegh were the main intermediary contact between the settlers and the Powhatan in the early months of English settlement. There were frequent and ongoing disputes between the Paspahegh and settlers, stemming from a range of issues such as basic as miscommunication to gross aggression and greed.

  Despite the issues, both sides also made frequent attempts to make peace. Throughout 1608, Wowinchapuncke sent the colonists regular supplies of corn, however, the English failed to uphold their end of the agreements by supplying the Powhatan with weapons such as guns and cannons. Due to a poor harvest in 1608, food supplies ran low and English settlers raided villages and committed atrocities to obtain food by force, which culminated with the assassination of Wowinchapuncke’s wife and children in 1610. Tensions increased which led to deaths on both sides. By 1611, Wowinchapuncke dies following injury in another battle with the Jamestown settlers and his tribe never recovered from his loss. The frequent skirmishes led to the eventual eradication of the Paspahegh tribe, which disappeared from historical records about 1611. Return to text

  Note 13: The Engl
ish were not the only ones who tried to settle in the Tidewater region.

  As early as 1561, Spanish explorers landed in Virginia via the Chesapeake Bay. The Spanish befriended a young Indian named Paquiquineo, (later renamed Don Luis) who traveled back to Spain with them and eventually converted to Christianity. It is unknown whether he traveled with them voluntarily, or if he was a captive. He attempted to return to his home many times with the aid of Dominican missionaries, however, he was not successful until he allied with a group of Jesuit priests in 1570. Nine years after he left the Chesapeake, he returned and was reunited with his family. The Jesuit missionaries started a small settlement which consisted of at least a house and a chapel, and they set out to convert the Indians in the area to Christianity. After a few months, Paquiquineo led an assault on the Jesuits and slaughtered them all, save for one alter boy.

  In 1584, English explorers Arthur Barlowe and Philip Amadas landed in the Outer Banks and spearheaded contact with the local tribes. They returned to England with two young native men named Manteo and Wanchese. A second voyage in 1585 resulted in the construction of a fort on Roanoke Island, which was abandoned less than a year later after a series of altercations with the Indians during which the English executed the Weroance Pemisapan.

  1587 was the next attempt at a settlement with the ill-fated Roanoke colony. Theories abound over what happened to the colony, but by August 1590 the colony was found abandoned and lost to history. Return to text

  Note 14: Patawomeck tribe

  At the time of European settlement of America, the Patawomeck people were somewhat associated with the Powhatan Confederacy, but they were not under the rule of Chief Powhatan and they often allied with the English against the Powhatan. The Patawomeck were an Algonquian-speaking tribe who lived in the Tidewater region. Relations between the Powhatan and Patawomeck were bad enough in 1613 that the Patawomeck helped the English capture Chief Powhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas, who was staying with the Patawomeck under the care of Weroance Japazaws on a trade mission for her father at the time.

  After aligning with the English against the Powhatan in both the 1622 and 1644 massacres, the English turned on the Patawomeck and declared war against them in 1666. It was at this time that the Patawomeck disappeared from the historical record, (much like the Paspahegh) and survivors likely merged into other tribes.

  Today, however, the Patawomeck tribe has been revived and is one of the eleven tribes recognized by the state of Virginia. Return to text

  Note 15: What it meant when a woman shaved a man’s scalp

  In Native American tribes, the way the hair is tied, braided, or bound is of great significance. Hair styles can indicate many things, such as the age and tribal status of an individual, or when a person is promised or married. The hair can show which tribe one belongs to, and different styles are worn during times of war, peace, or celebration.

  Powhatan men commonly wore a style of hair where the right side was shaved or plucked in a crescent shape over the right ear. This was popular as well as functional, since removing the hair on the right side would better enable the man to shoot a bow without interference. The remainder of the hair was either left loose or tied in a knot and decorated with feathers, shells, or rattles from a rattlesnake.

  In the Time Walkers world, the act of shaving (or plucking) the man’s scalp is considered the chore of a wife or betrothed. Although I found mentions of the task in my research, this was part of the story where I incorporated fact into fiction. In some cultures, a man who wished to court a woman would leave a gift of a white buckskin dress and moccasins outside her door. Another indication of accepting courtship was if a man approached a woman who was walking on a path; if the woman stepped off the path to speak to him, it meant that she accepted his courting. There were many rituals and customs that were part of courting (which have been lost to the written record), many of which would have been considered innocent to an outsider but which actually held great meaning. Return to text

  Note 16: On the importance of premonitions by Priests

  Chief Powhatan was known for his staunch belief in the predictions made by his shamen, known as kwiocosuk. He took their visions so seriously, in fact, that when one of his shamen informed him that, "from the Chesapeake Bay a nation should arise, which should dissolve and give end to his empire", (from William Strachey's The Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannia 1618) he promptly declared war on the Chesapeake people and subsequently completely exterminated them prior to 1607. When English settlers arrived at Jamestown, one of their duties was to discover the fate of the Roanoke colony. Powhatan told them that the Roanoke settlers had lived with the Chesapeake, and he further bragged that he had killed them along with the Chesapeake because they were prophesied to bring an end to his reign. To further complicate matters, Powhatan later claimed that some of the Roanoke settlers were still alive and working in Powhatan towns, yet it remains a mystery which version of Powhatan’s story was the truth.

  Opechacanough is known to have taken counsel from his kwiocosuk, and many decisions required the approval of tribal shamen before action could be taken. Return to text

  Note 17: Nemattanew

  Nemattanew was a Pamukey warrior who served as war chief to Opechancanough during the First Anglo-Powhatan War (1610-1614). He was a favorite of the Weroance, but as the planned time of the Great Assault of 1622 drew near, he lost favor with the Powhatan leader. Return to text

  Note 18: Prisoners & slaves in Powhatan society

  Prisoners were acquired during raids or wars, and both the English and the Powhatan kept prisoners to barter with. Although the Weroance was the authority figure in the tribe, the fate of prisoners was generally left up to their keepers. Some captives were kept as slaves, which could be shared or traded at the whim of their captor; other war captives integrated into the community either willingly or unwillingly through marriage and/or bearing children. Prisoners were frequently used as bargaining chips in negotiations between the English and Powhatan, especially after the Great Assault of 1622 when the Powhatan tribes held hundreds of English settlers as captives. Tribal men were considered to be in charge of their captives in all matters, and even the Weroance could not interfere in that relationship unless there was some extenuating circumstance. Return to text

  Note 19: Martin’s Hundred

  The term “hundred” referred to the land parcel where 100 families could live. By the time of the Massacre of 1622, there were dozens of “hundred” plantations along the James River adjacent to Jamestown, and Martin’s Hundred was one of the hardest hit.

  Originally settled in 1618 at Wolstenholme Towne by the group of investors called the Society of Martin’s Hundred, Martin’s Hundred grew to a size of 21,500 acres with more than 100 inhabitants. After the Massacre, about 80 people were killed at Wolstenholme Towne, roughly three-quarters of the population, and the town never recovered after that. Martin’s Hundred was abandoned and the remaining settlers went back to England or resettled within the safer confines of Jamestown. Return to text

  Note 20: The Norse (or lack of) in North America

  Norsemen reached North America about 500 years before Christopher Columbus stumbled upon it, making the Norse the earliest explorers of the Eastern Coast of America. Much of the knowledge of this early settlement comes from Sagas such as The Saga of Erik the Red and Saga of the Greenlanders, although for centuries scholars were in disagreement over the accuracy and validity of the stories. The Sagas mention settlements on the east coast called Vinland, Hop, and Straumfjoror, and recently archeologists have uncovered evidence of Norse settlements on the Northern tip of Newfoundland. Clarification of where the Norse actually settled and how far they explored is difficult for historians to accurately gage, since the Norse left very few written records other than the Sagas.

  Is it that far-fetched to imagine that Norse explorers may have traveled further south than Newfoundland? Scholars do not agree that the Newfoundland settlement is actually Vi
nland; many argue that the Vinland described in the Sagas was much warmer than the Newfoundland climate, and therefore, the Newfoundland settlement was likely a way-station where travelers could regroup for supplies before they ventured south.

  How far did they go – and where did they end up? One can only imagine the possibilities. Return to text

  Note 21: Powhatan wedding customs

  The wedding vows Winn spoke to Maggie were adapted from traditional Indian wedding vows. There were many marriage customs during that time, and it varied considerably between the subsidiary tribes under Powhatan rule. In some cases, a man and woman were considered married if they spoke vows, or if they spoke vows in front of witnesses. Other times a ceremony was necessary, during which the father of the bride would place the hands of the couple together, and then the father of the groom would break a string of shell beads over the bound hands to signify the marriage.

  The burden of marriage was on the male in Powhatan society. Males could take a wife if he could properly provide for her, so men had to accumulate enough wealth to be able to support the wife and his household. In most cases, men were required to compensate the wife’s family for the loss of her valuable labor, so not only did a man need to be able to house his wife appropriately, he needed to come up with a considerable amount of goods to pay his wife’s family to secure the marriage.

  Once a man was married, he could take a second bride if he had enough wealth to support her. Weroances routinely took many wives (Powhatan was thought to have more than 100 wives), however common men did not always take multiple wives. Having more than one wife was a symbol of wealth and status; in fact, married men enjoyed pleasures such as smoking tobacco, which unmarried men did not partake in. Marriage was considered a sign of manhood, and married men were allowed to participate in religious and political meetings.