discovery of, 2
lifetime of the free, 17
not elementary, x
new particle physics theory without a Higgs boson, 139–141
new physics, alleviating fine-tuning or naturalness problem, 184
Newton, Isaac, xi, 15, 56, 61, 133, 206
Nicolai, Hermann, 186
Noether, Amalie (Emmy), 62, 65, 209
Noether’s theorem, 209, 211
nonabelian extension, of Maxwell’s equations, 66
nonabelian gauge theory, 22, 83, 140, 145
nonabelian groups, 58, 59, 60, 203
non-Higgs resonance interpretation, 128–129
nonlocal energy scale, 136
nonlocality, 133–134, 209
nonlocal quantum field theory: adding compensating field contributions, 135
applying to particle physics, 137–139
electroweak theory based on, 143–144
generating particle masses from, 140
removed troublesome infinities, 134
Norton, Richard, 138
nuclear physics, birth of, 2
nuclei, binding protons and neutrons in, 16
nucleons, 60
nuisance parameters, 198
null experiment, of Michelson and Morley, 61
O(2) rotation group, 58
O(3) continuous group, 59
objects, symmetry of, 55
observed events, putting into statistical bins, 99
Occhialini, Giuseppe, 2, 67
Ochando, Christophe, 190
Ochsenfeld, Robert, 87
octet, in SU(3), 27
omega mesons, 4
Omega minus particle, 4
Onel, Yasar, 109, 112
Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh, 86, 212
on-shell spin-1 boson, cannot decay into two photons, 118
Oppenheimer, Robert, 24
Ørsted, Hans Christian, 16
outliers, removing, 174
Pagels, Heinz, 138
Pais, Abraham, 6
Panofsky, Wolfgang, 48
parastatistics, 10
parity, 209
defined, 14, 195
determining, 167, 195–197
true analysis for, 173
parking facilities, for analyzed data, 169
particle(s): accelerating to hit a fixed target, 43
calculated probability of scattering, 21
calculating self-energies of, 145
determining energy and momentum of, 39
determining quantum numbers of, 159
energy loss producing deceleration, 45
idea of in the modern sense, 32
masses, xi, 137, 140
as one-dimensional strings, 74
as points in space, 74
probability of decaying into other particles, 40
scalar or pseudoscalar property, 117
resonance 67
spin of in physical units, 4
spins, infinite number of, 26
studying inside atomic nuclei, 46
tracking the path of, 38
trying to discover new, 40
particle beams, laboratory energy of, 46–47
particle field, consistent with quantum mechanics and relativity, xii
particle physics: above ultraviolet energy cutoff, 122
alternate theory of, xii
applying nonlocal quantum field theory to, 137–139
consequences of finding a standard-model Higgs boson, 163
cosmological bearings on, 186–188
elementary particles of the standard model, 12
range of a force in, 81
particle-wave description, of the electron, 2
particle zoo, 2
parton model, 9, 28, 29
past light cone, 209
Pauli, Wolfgang, 2, 17, 23–24, 83, 141
Pauli’s exclusion principle, 10, 208
Penrose, Roger, 182
pentaquark, 113
periodic cyclic models, 188
Perl, Martin, 14
perturbation theory, 18, 94, 123, 125, 136, 209
phase transition, 87, 95
photoelectric effect, Einstein, 34
photomultiplier, 34
photons, 33, 209
becoming massive, 86, 88
being radiated, 34
detecting single, 34
known experimentally to have zero mass, 68
shower of, 35
pi meson (pion), 30, 37, 42, 67–68, 147, 210
Planck, Max, xiv, 32, 33, 119, 210
Planck energy (mass), 208, 210
Planck length, 210
Planck’s constant (h), 4, 209, 210
Planck’s E = hv, 33
Plato, 1
Platonic solids, Kepler’s five, 182, 183
Podolsky, Boris, 133
Politzer, David, 29, 30
polyhedrons, regular, 55
Popov, Victor, 84
positronium, 118
positrons, 2, 42, 177, 210
potential energy, 210
Powell, Cecil, 2, 67
preons, 127
prequarks, 1
probabilities, kinds of, 101
propagator, in quantum field theory, 143
proportional counter, 37
proportional wire chamber, 37, 38
proton-proton collisions, 8, 149
protons, 210
cosmic rays consisting of, 42
diffused structure of, 8
discovery of, 1
hard objects inside, 8
keeping in tight orbits, 45
moving extremely close to the speed of light, 49
not elementary, x
Proton Synchrotron (PS), 45, 46, 48, 50
pseudoscalar Higgs model, 149, 173
pseudoscalar particles, 67–68, 148, 164, 210
QCD. See quantum chromodynamics (QCD)
QED. See quantum electrodynamics (QED)
quantization, of energy, xiv
quantum chromodynamics (QCD), 11, 60, 83, 210
confirmation of, 94
discovering asymptotic freedom in, 30
strong interactions involving quarks and gluons, 9
strong interactions of quarks with gluons, 123
quantum electrodynamics (QED), 17, 210
approach to, 134
electron penetrating cloud of annihilating positrons and electrons, 30
fundamentally inconsistent as a physical theory, 24
introducing nonlocal behavior of the fields into, 136
renormalizable and therefore finite theory of, 69
success of depending on photon being massless, 82
theory of, 16, 24, 82
quantum entanglement, 133, 134
quantum field theory, xii, 210
axioms of, 133
based on the gauge principle, 9
infinities in calculations, 135
mathematical infinities in, 132
renormalizable, 80
requirement of locality in, 134
theoretical foundations of, 24
quantum gravity, not renormalizable, 18
quantum mechanical spin, 4
quantum mechanics, xi, 210
describing both particles and waves, 46
early, not consistent with special relativity theory, 17
as nonlocal theory, 133
united with relativity, xii
quantum spin, 67, 210
quantum statistics, for quarks, 10
quark(s), 6–10, 12, 210
confinement, not detectable directly, 9, 10, 11, 204
confirmed experimentally, 14
detecting, 9
discovered in the lineup of elementary particles, 15
existence of a fourth, 11
existing as real objects, 30
flavor and color properties of, 30
flavor mixing, 165
fourth generation of, 105
mass spectrum of, 179
model, 1, 25–26
number in a proton, 29
predictions of, x
three generations of, 14
quark/antiquark pseudoscalar particle, 119
quark-antiquark resonance, possibility of, 128
quark-gluon plasma, 52, 210
quarkonium, 14, 115, 118, 119, 127, 148, 149, 164
quark-parton model, 26–31
quartet representation, of SU(4), 11
quintessence, 206
radioactive beta decay, 2
radioactive decay, 12, 16, 18
Rahvar, Sohrab, 132
Randall, Lisa, 168
Randall-Sundrum model, 168
reductionism, process of, 32
reductionist view, of matter, 1
Regge, Tullio, 25
Regge pole models, of strong interactions, 25, 26
Reines, Fred, 2
relativistic quantum field theory, 17–20, 86
relativity, quantum mechanics united with, xii
Rencontre de Moriond meeting, 151, 189
renormalizability, difficulties with, 142
renormalizable quantum field theory, 18, 82
renormalization, 211
advent of, 17
constants, 24
Dirac’s disapproval of, 19, 82
Feynman on, 19
group theory, 19
involving infinities, 177
modern refinements of, 132
more modern developments of, 82
saving calculations of QED from meaningless infinities, 24
resonances, 4, 26, 119, 147
rho mesons, 4
Richter, Burton, 13–14
Riemann, Bernhard, 21
Riemannian geometry, 21
right-handed neutrino, 186
ring colliders, 45–46
Röntgen, Wilhelm, 16
Rosen, Nathan, 133
rotational invariance, 211
Rouet, Alain, 84
Rubbia, Carlo, 48, 113, 120, 155, 161–162
Rutherford, Ernest, 1
Sakata, Shoichi, 4
Sakurai, Jun John, 27
Salam, Abdus, xiv, 23, 27, 68, 80, 81, 85, 92–93, 96, 138, 145, 146
scalar field, 67, 89, 91, 211
scalar bosons, 143
Higgs model, renormalizable, 177
versus a pseudoscalar meson, 147-150
Higgs condensate, made of quarks, 126
scalar Higgs, self-interaction of, 96
spin-0, 81, 96, 164
scale-invariant spectrum, of matter fluctuations, 131
scaling laws, Bjorken’s, 28, 29;
constituting proof of existence of quarks inside the proton, 8
scattering, of strongly interacting particles, 25
SCHOONSHIP computer program, 94
Schrieffer, John Robert, 87
Schrödinger’s wave equation, 63
Schwinger, Julian, 17, 80, 81, 86, 138
screening length, 88
self-energy: calculation, 145
of an electron, 17
self-interaction mass, of the electron, 82
self-interactions, 71, 72
of the Higgs boson, 185
masses of elementary particles, 138
Shaposhnikov, Mikhail, 186
Shaw, Ronald, 23
shower counter, 38
sigma particle, 80, 81
signal strength: of the decay of the Higgs boson into two photons, 102
of the new boson’s decay into two photons, 158
for the tau + and tau - decay, 193
signal-to-noise ratio, background determining, 48
sixth quark, 14
SLAC. See Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC)
Slavnov, Andrei A., 83
S-matrix, 25, 26, 211
SO(3) group, 59
soft scattering, 8
solid-state physics, 84–89
spacetime, 62, 131
spark chamber, 37
spartners, LHC not found, 180
special relativity, 42, 211
Einstein’s postulates in, 61
energy equivalent to mass, xi
speed of influence cannot exceed speed of light, 134
special unitary group SU(N), 60
special unitary Lie group in two complex dimensions SU(2), 59
speed of light, as constant, 61, 211
spin, 60
characterizing different particles, 4
defined, 195
determining, 195–197
of a particle, 4. See also quantum spin
spin-1 vector particle, decay of, 164
spin-2 particle, characteristics of a graviton, 164
spin-parity analysis: of the data, 197–199
results for, 174
spirals, measuring curvature of, 38
Spiro, Michel, 160
spontaneous symmetry breaking, 137, 139, 211, 212
electroweak theory based on, 119
generating an effective massfor the photon, 86
producing massless Goldstone bosons, 146
of the vacuum in gauge theories in particle physics, 93. See also symmetry breaking
“spooky action at a distance,” 133, 209
standard deviation, 211
standard deviations (sigmas), attached to a resonance bump, 99
standard LambdaCDM model, 131 See also LambdaCDM model
standard model: basic elementary particles of, 94
of cosmology, 73
mass of the Higgs boson not predicted by, 94, 120
moving beyond, 121–123
new physics beyond, 79
of particle physics, 91, 211
particles, coupling to gravity, 186
predicted masses of the W and the Z, 119–120
weak interactions, 83
standard-model Higgs boson: bringing with it difficult problems, 184, 200
comparing with competing models, 198
decay into two photons, 100
described, 199
prominent features of, 147
unique features, 200 See also Higgs boson
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), 7, 43–44
Crystal Ball experiment, 113
experiments at, x
linear electron accelerator at, 8
statistical analysis, determining the spin and parity of the X particle, 198
statistical artifact, excess seen as, 111
statistical significance, of the recent LHC results between 2 sigma and 3 sigma, 108
steady-state theory of cosmology, 181
Steinhardt, Paul, 187, 188
sterile neutrinos, 163
Stora, Raymond, 84
strangeness, 6
strange quark (s), 7
Strassler, Matt, 153, 170
string theory, 17, 74, 211
string pictured as a one-dimensional object, 135
strong anthropic principle, 182
strong focusing, 45
strong force or interaction, 16, 23, 30, 83, 124, 205, 211–212
coupling constant, 25
strong QCD force, energy scale of, 178
Stueckelberg formalism, 105, 143
Stuekelberg, Ernst, 142
SU(2), 60, 143
SU(2) X U(1) group symmetry, 145
SU(3), 3, 11
Sudarshan, George, 28
Sundrum, Raman, 168
supercharge, on the superpartners, 72
superconducting magnets, 49, 51
superconducting supercollider (SSC)-like setback, for particle physics, 54
superconductivity, 86, 93, 123, 212
superconductors: history of the theory of, 87
nature of, 85
physics of low-temperature, x
supergravity, 17, 72, 212
superheavy quarkonium model, bound state, 118
supernova explosions, sources of cosmic rays, 42
superpartners: differing by a spin unit of ½, 71
none existing below a mass of 600 to 800 GeV, 73
search for continuing to come up empty-handed, 74
significant exclusions of supersymmetry models, 109
super proton synchrotron (SPS), 14, 48, 50
superspin fields, 135
superspin particles, 135
superstring theory, 74, 75, 212
supersymmetric particles, ix, 53, 110, 113
supersymmetric partners, 169
supersymmetry: applications of, 71–74
increase of particles generated by, 121
on life support now, 146
origin of, 71
particles of, xii
solving naturalness problem, 179–180
theory, 212
Susskind, Leonard, 72, 124
symmetry, 55, 65, 71
symmetry breaking, 84, 85, 178, 212. See also spontaneous symmetry breaking
symmetry group SU(3), 27
synchrotron radiation, 44
synchrotrons, 45
Takahashi, Yasushi, 83, 213
Tamm, Igor, 34
Tatarski, Darius, 131
tau leptons, 14, 152, 193
tau decays, signal strength, 194
tau+/tau - decay channel of the X boson, 162, 175, 193
tau neutrino, 15
Taylor, John C., 83
Techni-boson, in a modified Technicolor model, 166
Technicolor, 124
Technicolor particles, 124, 125
techni-pion, 125
TeV (teraelectron volt), 212
Tevatron accelerator, at Fermilab, 14, 45, 49, 139, 212
data results, 111
research group, 151, 156
theory of relativity, including gravity, 15
theory of weak interactions, not renormalizable, 18
Thomson, J. J., 1, 32, 41
’t Hooft, Gerard, 30, 93–94, 129, 185
thousands of electron volts (keV), xi
three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, 58–59
Ting, Samuel, 13–14
Tipler, Frank, 181
Tolman, Richard, 188
Tomonaga, Sin-Itiro, 17
Tonelli, Guido, 98
top-antitop quark condensate, problem with, 127
toponium, 127
toponium states, 165
top quark: detecting, 14
discovery of, 155, 161
mass of, 127, 186
truly discovered, 113
top quark Higgs condensate, 126
Toth, Viktor, 132, 140
Touschek, Bruno, 45
tower of particles or fields in nature with increasing spin values, 135
tracks, observed in other experimental devices, 35
transmutation, of matter, 2
trillions of electron volts (TeV), xi
true vacuum, 91
Turok, Neil, 170, 188
two-photon decay data, 162, 190-192 See also diphoton decay
Tyutin, Igor, 84
U(1) abelian symmetry, spontaneous breaking, 86
U(1) group invariance, 60
Uhlenbeck, George, 4
ultraviolet energy catastrophe, 122
unblinding of the data, some bias built into, 173
unification scheme, of the weak force and electromagnetism involving leptons, 90
Cracking the Particle Code of the Universe Page 31
