Einstein and the Quantum
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Friction, 190
Fundamental constants, 116–117
Fusion theory of light, 137–138, 281
Galileo Galilei, 29, 89
Games of chance, 232–234
Gas(es): Boltzmann’s constant and, 51–55; Boyle’s Law and, 38, 221; ideal gas law, 221, 230–238, 261; interaction with radiation, 189–190; molecular motion, 39–41, 51–55; particles, 81, 96; photon gas, 221–223, 230; pressure, 38; quantum ideal, 229, 230–232, 235–238. See also Energy
Geiger, Hans, 211, 283–284; experiment on atomic nucleus, 172; experiment with Bothe on Compton Effect, 283; experiment on elementary charge, 114, 138;
General theory of relativity, 84, 123, 161, 183, 207; Einstein’s struggle with, 283; equivalence principle and, 123; expedition to test, 204; reaction to, 162, 205. See also Theory of relativity
German Physical Society, 5, 8, 10–11, 12–13, 179, 201
Ghost fields, 198–199, 276
Gibbs, Josiah Willard, 49–50, 51, 56, 91, 95, 259
Gladstone, William, 31
Gordon, Walter, 273
Gravitational attraction, 232
Gravitational constant, 154
Gravity, 28–29, 30, 160
Grossman, Marcel, 20, 21–22, 45
Ground state, 185–186, 229
Haber, Clara, 169, 209
Haber, Fritz, 145, 163–164, 165; World War I and, 168, 169
Habicht, Conrad, 63–67, 84
Harmonic oscillation, 199–200, 270
Hartog, P. J., 218
Hasenohrl, Fritz, 259
Health of Einstein, 193–196
Heat: entropy, 42, 51–55; laws of thermodynamics and, 9–10, 41; Planck’s work on light and, 5, 6–7; specific, 97, 103–110, 141, 146–147
Heisenberg, Werner, 212, 226, 238, 255, 268–269, 284; Bohr and, 268, 269–270; Born on, 269; discovery of uncertainty principle, 278; on light absorption, 270–271; matrix mechanics of, 272–274; nomination for Nobel prize, 280; on transition frequencies, 270–271
Hertz, Heinrich, 77–78, 83
Herzog, Albin, 15
Hevesy, George, 146, 179
Higgs boson, 217
Hilbert, David, 158–159
Hurwitz, Adolf, 19, 166
Ideal gas law, 221, 229–230; Einstein on, 230–238; Schrödinger and, 261–263
Intelligent design, 42–43
Japan, Einstein’s visit to, 212–213
Jaumann, Gustav, 151
Jeans, James Hopwood, 10–11, 99–102, 126–127, 131, 292; Dynamical Theory of Gases, 99; Solvay and, 149
Jewish identity of Einstein, 208–209
Jordan, Pascual, 192, 255, 271, 272
Kallmann, Hartmut, 273
Kamerlingh-Onnes, Maryke, 195
Kelvin, Lord, 76–77, 95, 171
Kirchoff, Gustav, 25
Kirchoff’s law, 291
Kleiner, Alfred, 46–47, 124
Kurlbaum, Ferdinand, 5, 8, 11–12, 58, 99, 143
Langevin, Paul, 157, 225, 241–242, 249–250
Langmuir, Irving, 143–144
Laplace, Pierre Simon de, 29, 40, 42
Laub, Jakob, 122, 124–125, 133, 153
Laws of thermal radiation: mathematical statement of radiation laws, 293–294; overview of radiation laws, 291–292; Planck’s law, 5, 8, 51, 74, 134, 196, 292; Planck-Wien Law, 5, 8, 9–12, 58 (see also Wien’s law this entry); Rayleigh-Jeans Law, 100, 119–120, 125, 220, 288, 291–294; Stefan-Boltzmann Law, 72–73 101; Wien’s law, 9, 11, 58, 74, 94–99, 246, 287, 292–294. See also Blackbody radiation; Thermal radiation
Lectures on the Theory of Gases, 36
Lenard, Philip, 79, 135, 207–208
Light: absorption, 75–77, 270–271; Bose on quantum properties of, 219–224, 228; De Broglie’s theory on, 245–247; Einstein’s “fusion” theory of, 137; Einstein’s heuristic point of view on, 70–79; Einstein’s paper on quanta of, 67–69, 281; emission theory of, 137; and the ether, 83–85; ghost fields and, 198–199, 209–211; laws of thermodynamics and, 9–10; Maxwell’s wave theory of, 70; Nernst lamp and, 143–144; photoelectric effect, 78–79; Planck’s response to Einstein’s heuristic theory of, 80–81; Planck’s study of, 5, 6–7; stimulated emission of, 186, 224–225; spontaneous emission of, 186, 224–225; Stokes rule, 76–77; wave frequency, 75–76; wave theory of, 70, 83, 137. See also Electromagnetic (EM) radiation; Quantum theory
Light quanta, 122, 125, 187, 217, 226, 228, 272, 279; blackbody law and, 74, 88; Bose’s method of counting, 233; De Broglie on, 245, 247, 250, 252; Einstein’s correspondence with Lorentz regarding, 134–135, 174; Einstein’s work on, 84–85, 221; force of radiation and, 139; fusion theory of, 137; ghost fields and, 209–210; photoelectric effect and, 78; Planck on, 80, 90–91, 93, 127; particulate concept of, 182, 196; pointlike energy packets of light and, 132; radiation properties and, 153–155, 192, 198; specific heat and, 106, 148; ultraviolet catastrophe and, 97, 101. See also Photons
Linear oscillator, 174–175, 187
Lippmann, Gabriel, 121
Liquids, 39; Bose-Einstein condensation and, 237–238
Lorentz, Hendrik, 14, 50, 80–81, 84, 89, 118–121, 125, 126, 158, 192; Einstein’s correspondence with, 130–135, 153–154, 167, 194, 197, 241; on ghost fields, 198; opinion of Einstein, 123–124; opinion of Einstein’s Relativity Theory, 118; on Planck’s formula, 92; on quantum theory and classical physics, 171–172, 173; Solvay Congress and, 149–150, 171–172
Loschmidt, Josef, 38
Lyman, Theodore, 178
Mach, Ernst, 116, 255
Magnetism, 30–31, 33
Mauguin, Charles, 250
Maric, Mileva. See Einstein, Mileva
Maric Maric, Milos, 23
Markwalder, Stephanie, 21–22
Markwalder, Suzanne, 21–22
Marsden, Ernest, 172
Mass, 30–31, 245–246
Massless nature of photons, 155–156, 265
Matrix mechanics, 271–274, 280, 289; Einstein’s opinion of, 271–272; equivalence to wave mechanics, 273
Matter, 30
Matter waves, 265, 274–277
Maxwell, James Clerk, 6, 12–14, 17, 45, 48–49, 51, 54, 89, 102, 104, 132, 140, 259; on atomic theory, 37–38; Einstein’s study of, 36, 84–85, 153; Faraday’s law and, 32–33; influence on Einstein, 50; on intelligent design, 42–43; on movement of molecules, 38–39; Newtonian mechanics and, 42; philosophy of science, 31–32; on Queen Victoria, 32; on Second Law of thermodynamics, 55; statistical mechanics and, 40–42; wave theory of light, 70, 83; wealth of, 165
Maxwell-Boltzmann theory, 38
Maxwell’s Demon, 55
Maxwell’s equations: Boltzmann on, 33; Einstein on, 35; Lorentz on, 35; quantum theory and, 154–156, 197; Schrödinger and, 263, 265; significance of, 34–5
McCarthy, Eugene, 227
Metals, atomic properties of, 45
Meyer, George, 129
Meyer-Schmid, Anna, 129–130
Millikan, Robert, 142, 213
Minkowski, Hermann, 17, 19, 20, 123–124, 136
Mittag-Leffler, Gosta, 121
Molecules: Doppler effect, 190–191; Einstein’s hypothesis on atomic theory and, 45–46; entropy, 51–55, 74; gas, 39–41; light absorption, 75–77; movement of, 38–40; potential energy, 68–69; resonator, 91–93
Mookerjee, Asutosh, 218
Motion: Boltzmann’s constant and gas, 51–55; diffusion, 39; Doppler effect, 190–191; molecular, 38–40, 51–55; Newton’s laws of, 27–30, 32; periodic, 174–175 theory of relativity and, 161
Nature, 100
Nernst, Walther, 141–143, 272, 281; character of, 142–143; influence on Einstein, 146–148, 154, 163–165, 228; opinion on diamond experiment, 106; opinion on Einstein, 141; opinion on General Relativity, 181; Solvay and, 149–150; Third Law of thermodynamics, 144–145, 238 (see also Nernst’s Law); work of, 141–148, 157, 165, 174, 208, 228–229; World War I and, 168, 169
Nernst lamp, 143–144
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br /> Nernst’s law, 145–146, 238
Neutrons, 81
Newton, Isaac, 6, 12, 13, 17, 34–35, 46, 89, 205; influence on Einstein, 35
Newtonian mechanics, 27–30, 42, 81, 97, 106, 152, 154, 163, 200
Newton’s First Law, 28, 60
Newton’s Second Law, 28, 30, 32
New York Times, 205
Nicolai, George, 168
Nobel prizes, 111, 113–114, 117–118, 144, 170, 195, 212–213, 252; Einstein’s nominations of Heisenberg and Schrödinger for, 280; won by Einstein, 282
Non-linear processes with photons, 76
Olympia Academy, 63–66, 212
“On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light,” 67
“On Einstein’s Gas Theory,” 262
Onnes, H. K., 149, 229
“On the Development of Our Views concerning the Nature and Constitution of Radiation,” 136
“On the Present Status of the Radiation Problem,” 126–127
“On the Quantum Theorem of Sommerfeld and Epstein,” 201
“On the Quantum Theory of Radiation,” 188
Orbital energy, 174–178, 183–184, 200–202
Oscillation: harmonic, 199–200, 270; Heisenberg on, 270–271; linear, 174–175, 187; Schrödinger on, 275–276
Ostwald, Wilhelm, 113, 142
Particles, 81, 96, 137, 284; Bose on, 221–222; de Broglie on, 247–249; energy fluctuations and, 250–251; Nernst’s heat theorem for, 228–229; principle of least action, 200
Paschen, Friedrich, 184
Patent office, Bern, 46–47, 62–63, 66, 122–123
Pauli, Wolfgang, 136, 238, 255, 269, 271, 273
Peak frequency, 95–96
Periodic motion, 174–175
Pernet, Jean, 18
Perrin, Jean, 40, 142, 149, 157, 250
Petit, Alex, 103–104
Philosophical Magazine, 215, 218
Photoelectric effect, 78–79, 213
Photons, 71, 75, 155–156, 182, 193, 221–223, 230, 281; bosonic nature of, 217; de Broglie on, 245–246; gas of, 221–223, 230; ghost fields and, 276; lack of deterministic laws for, 198; massless nature of, 155–156, 265; non-linear processes with, 76; Planck on, 80, 140. See also Light quanta
Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, 165
Pickering, E. C., 178
Pickering-Fowler spectrum, 178–179
Planck, Max, 4, 67, 71, 124, 127, 146, 147, 164, 165, 192, 213, 229, 255, 272, 274, 281, 292; blackbody radiation and, 56–60; Boltzmann’s principle and, 56–58; de Broglie on, 244; Einstein’s thoughts on, 26–27, 73–74, 285; on fundamental constants, 116–117; German Physical Society and, 5, 8, 10–13; Nobel prize, 113–114; response to Einstein’s heuristic theory of light quanta, 80–81; Solvay and, 149; support for Einstein’s special theory of relativity, 88–89; as a theoretical physicist, 5–6, 13–14; on theory of relativity, 151; World War I and, 168
Planck’s constant, 79, 111, 116–117, 154–155, 174, 200, 247; electron orbital frequencies and, 176; rest frequency and, 248
Planck’s law, 5, 8, 51, 74, 134, 196, 292; Born’s derivation of, 219–224; Bose on, 219–224, 228; de Broglie and, 246–247; Einstein’s thoughts on, 26–27, 90–91; fluctuating force and, 191; “fusion” theory of light and, 137–138; Planck’s presentation of, 10–11, 12–13; quantum theory and, 187–189; Lord Rayleigh on, 94–99; Rayleigh-Jeans law and, 100–102; Second Law of thermodynamics and, 9–11; visible EM radiation and, 11–12
“Planck’s Law and the Quantum Hypothesis,” 219
Planck’s radiation law, 11–12, 113–119
“Planck’s Theory of Radiation and the Theory of Specific Heat,” 106
Planck-Wien Law. See Laws of thermal radiation
Poincaré, Henri, 84, 149
Potential energy, 68–69, 265–266
Pressure, gas, 38, 139
Principle of least action, 88, 200
Probability density, 276, 282
Protons, 81, 115–116
Prussian Academy of Sciences, 166, 181, 213, 229, 235, 262
Quanta of Light. See Light quanta; Photons
Quantization of energy, 97–98, 106–110, 131–132, 281; Bohr-Sommerfeld rule, 170–174; Einstein and, 107, 200–202; Heisenberg and, 270–271; Planck and, 60–61; Schrödinger and, 263–265
Quantum chaos theory, 202–203
Quantum freezing, 144–145
Quantum ideal gas, 229, 231–232, 235–238
Quantum mechanics, 268, 281; de Broglie and, 253; determinism in, 277; Einstein’s dislike of, 1–2, 277; Nernst’s heat theorem and, 228–229; significance of, 2
“Quantum Mechanics of Collision Phenomena,” 276
Quantum theory, 3, 125–128, 162–163, 193, 212–213, 280–281; blackbody law and, 184–185; Bose-Einstein condensation and, 233–238; directed process in, 189–192; Einstein’s commitment to, 160–161, 183–184; Einstein’s struggles with, 153–156; ghost fields and, 198–199; ideal gas and, 226; Lorentz on, 171–172, 173; Maxwell’s equations and, 154–156; Nernst and, 147–148, 152–153, 228–229; Planck’s law and, 187–189; thermal equilibrium and, 185–186. See also Atomic theory; Quantum mechanics
“Quantum Theory of the Monatomic Ideal Gas,” 229–230
Radiation. See Electromagnetic (EM) radiation
Radioactive decay, 182–183
Radioactivity, 46
Rathenau, Walter, 211–212
Rayleigh, Lord, 93, 94, 104, 108, 165, 172, 292; Wien law and, 93, 94
Rayleigh-Jeans law, 100–102, 119–120, 125, 220, 288, 291–294
Reiche, Fritz, 136
“Remarks on the Statistical Definition of Entropy for the Ideal Gas,” 261
Rest frequency, 248
Revue Philosophique, 66
Ritz, Walter, 127
Rome Congress of Mathematicians, 124
Routh, E. J., 94
Rubens, Heinrich, 5, 8, 11–12, 58, 98–99, 136, 143, 148, 164; on Einstein’s work, 208; Solvay and, 149
Rutherford, Ernest, 114, 149, 170–173
Rydberg, Johannes, 177
Saha, Meghnad, 218
Schrödinger, Erwin, 155, 238–240, 253, 254, 284; academic appointments of, 254–255; Bose statistics and, 238–240, 260–61; Born and, 274, 277; on directed matter waves, 276–277; formal education of, 257–259; Heisenberg and, 272–274; on ideal gases, 261–263; nomination for Nobel prize, 280; relationships with women, 256; research style, 259–260; wave equation, 254, 256, 263–267; on wavefunction, 275–276
Second Law of thermodynamics, 9–11, 41, 48–49, 54–56; blackbody radiation and, 56–60; Maxwell and, 55
Sliding mirror thought experiment, 138–139, 189
Solids, 103–108, 145; atomic vibration and, 108–110; Bose-Einstein condensation and, 237–238
Solovine, Maurice, 63–66, 64, 86
Solvay, Ernest, 149–150, 156–158
Solvay Congress of 1911, 149–152, 156–158, 169–172, 242, 244
Sommerfeld, Arnold, 125–126, 136, 153–154, 163, 174, 199, 207, 229, 251, 255, 259; fine structures and, 183; on electron orbital frequency, 183–184; on orbital energy, 200–201; Schrödinger and, 263, 274; Solvay and, 158–159
Specific heat, 97, 103–110, 141, 146–147
Stark, Johannes, 135–136, 140, 174
Statistical mechanics, 40–42, 48, 90, 259; Boltzmann’s principle and, 56–58; Einstein’s papers on, 67–69; free energy and, 49; Maxwell on, 40
Stefan-Boltzmann law, 72–73, 101
Stern, Otto, 3, 183
Stimulated emission, 186–187, 224–225
Stodola, Aurel, 166
Stokes, George Gabriel, 76–77, 95
Stokes rule, 76–77
Strutt, John William. See Rayleigh, Lord
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), 163, 166, 167
Tanner, Hans, 146
Temperature, 38, 96; ideal gas law and, 235–236; quantum freezing and, 144–145
> Thalen, Tobias, 112
Theoretical physics, 5–6, 13–14, 61, 278; de Broglie and, 244–245; Einstein’s early work in, 26–27; Schrödinger and, 266–267
Theory of relativity, 3–4; attacks on, 206–207; Einstein’s early thoughts on, 126–128, 161; Einstein’s fame from, 205–207; as “elementary” theory, 126–128; internal contradictions, 280; Nobel committee and, 212–213; Planck on, 151; time dilation and, 248. See also General theory of relativity
Theory of Sound, The, 94
Thermal energy, 67–68
Thermal equilibrium, 7, 100–102, 140, 185–186, 189, 224, 250, 291
“Thermal Equilibrium of the Radiation Field in the Presence of Matter,” 224
Thermal radiation, 291, 293–294. See also Blackbody radiation; Laws of thermal radiation
Thermodynamics, laws of, 9–11, 41; black-body radiation and, 56–60; Boltzmann’s constant and, 54–55; Einstein’s light-quanta hypothesis and, 74–75, 281; Einstein’s papers on, 48–49; Maxwell’s demons and, 55–56; Nernst and, 144–145, 238; ultraviolet catastrophe and, 72, 98–102
Third Law of thermodynamics, 144–145, 238, 281
Thirring, Hans, 257
Thomson, J. J., 45, 95, 115, 118, 162, 170–172, 205
Thomson, William. See Kelvin, Lord
Time dilation, 248
Transition frequencies, 270–271
Trinity College, 94
Uhland, Ludwig, 4
Ultraviolet catastrophe, 72–73, 90–93, 97–102, 172, 288
University of Bern, 123
University of Zurich, 46, 122, 124, 130, 150
Valiant Swabian, the, 4, 44
Van ‘t Hoff, Jacobus Henricus, 113
Velocity, 161
Vibration, atomic, 104, 106–110, 178; de Broglie on, 248–250
Victoria, Queen, 32
Volume, gas, 38
Von Laue, Max, 136, 208, 211
Warburg, Emil, 164
Waves: de Broglie and, 247–250, 252; direct matter, 276–277; as disturbances, 83, 265; matter, 265, 274–275; probability density, 276; in q-space, 275–276; Schrödinger and, 254, 256, 262–263; wave theory of light, 70, 81–85, 83, 137, 138–139
Weber, Heinrich, 15–20, 26, 35, 46, 103–106, 152
Weimar Republic, 206
Weizmann, Chaim, 209
Weyland, Paul, 206–207
Whitehead, Alfred North, 205
Wien, Wilhelm, 94–99, 120, 136, 149, 213, 272, 274, 292, 293. See also Planck’s law
Wien’s law, 9, 11, 58, 74, 94–99, 246, 287, 292–294