A Misplaced Massacre: Struggling over the Memory of Sand Creek

by Ari Kelman

  59. Quotes from Freeman-Toole, “Dee Brown’s Legacy Lives On,” 100. See also Donald L. Fixico, “Rise of American Indian Studies,” in The American Indian Mind in a Linear World: American Indian Studies and Traditional Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 2003), 105–124; Peter Farb, “Indian Corn,” New York Review of Books 17 (December 16, 1971), http://www.nybooks.com/articles/10348; Patricia Nelson Limerick, Something in the Soil: Legacies and Reckonings in the New West (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), 66.

  60. Quotes from Jerry Russell interview, September 12, 2003. See also Michael S. Sherry, “Patriotic Orthodoxy and American Decline,” in Tom Engelhardt and Edward T. Linenthal, eds., History Wars: The Enola Gay and Other Battles for the American Past (New York: Holt Paperbacks, 1996), 97–114; Paul Boyer, “Whose History Is It Anyway: Memory, Politics, and Historical Scholarship,” in Engelhardt and Linenthal, History Wars, 115–139; Mike Wallace, “Culture War, History Front,” in Engelhardt and Linenthal, History Wars, 171–198; Marilyn B. Young, “Dangerous History: Vietnam and the ‘Good War,’ ” in Engelhardt and Linenthal, History Wars, 199–209.

  61. Valerie Sherer Mathes, Helen Hunt Jackson and Her Indian Reform Legacy (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997), 21–22; Siobhan Senier, Voices of American Indian Assimilation and Resistance: Helen Hunt Jackson, Sarah Winnemucca, and Victoria Howland (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001), 29; Kate Phillips, Helen Hunt Jackson: A Literary Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 11, 14–18; Valerie Sherer Mathes, “Helen Hunt Jackson and the Ponca Controversy,” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 39 (Winter 1989): 42–53; John R. Byers Jr., “Helen Hunt Jackson (1830–1885),” American Literary Realism, 1870–1910 2 (Summer 1969): 143–148; John R. Byers Jr., “The Indian Matter of Helen Hunt Jackson’s ‘Ramona’: From Fact to Fiction,” American Indian Quarterly 2 (Winter 1975–1976), 331–346; John M. Gonzalez, “The Warp of Whiteness: Domesticity and Empire in Helen Hunt Jackson’s ‘Ramona,’ ” American Literary History 16 (Autumn 2004): 437–465; Michael T. Marsden, “A Dedication to the Memory of Helen Hunt Jackson: 1830–1885,” Arizona and the West 21 (Summer 1979): 109–112.

  62. Mathes, Helen Hunt Jackson and Her Indian Reform Legacy, 21–22; Phillips, Helen Hunt Jackson, 23–26; Senier, Voices of American Indian Assimilation and Resistance, 43.

  63. Valerie Sherer Mathes and Richard Lowitt, The Standing Bear Controversy: Prelude to Indian Reform (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003), 9–104.

  64. “Another Sand Creek” from Gunnison Democrat, October 20, 1880. The exchange between Jackson and Schurz can be found in Helen Hunt Jackson, Century of Dishonor: A Sketch of the United States Government’s Dealings with Some of the Indian Tribes (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1881), appendix, 359–374. See also David Rich Lewis and William Wash, “Reservation Leadership and the Progressive-Traditional Dichotomy: William Wash and the Northern Utes, 1865–1928,” Ethnohistory 38 (Spring 1991): 124–148; Mathes, “Helen Hunt Jackson and the Ponca Controversy”; Ned Blackhawk, Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 176–225.

  65. “The Sand Creek …,” “evoked a …,” “been called …,” and “if so …” from W. B. Vickers, History of Clear Creek and Boulder valleys, Colorado: containing a brief history of the state of Colorado from its earliest settlement to the present time, embracing its geological, physical and climatic features, its agricultural, stockgrowing, railroad and mining interests, an account of the Ute trouble, a history of Gilpin, Clear Creek, Boulder, and Jefferson Counties, and biographical sketches (Chicago: O. L. Baskin, 1880), 42. “Perfect safety,” “Colorado soldiers,” and “covered themselves …” from Jackson’s first letter regarding Sand Creek, in Jackson, Century of Dishonor, appendix, 343–345.

  66. Quotes from Byers to Jackson, in Century of Dishonor, appendix, 346–350.

  67. The Byers-Jackson exchange can be found in ibid., appendix, 343–358. Quotes from pp. 357–358.

  68. Ibid., 27, 29.

  69. “Look upon …” from Mathes, Helen Hunt Jackson and Her Indian Reform Legacy, 36. “Indians’ Uncle Tom’s Cabin” from Senier, Voices of American Indian Assimilation and Resistance, ix. “Balancing the …” from Jerry Russell interview, September 12, 2003. See also Frederick Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880–1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), 3–29, 36–40, 87–104, 130–136, 159–181, 239–244; Donald J. Berthrong, “Legacies of the Dawes Act: Bureaucrats and Land Thieves at the Cheyenne-Arapaho Agencies of Oklahoma,” Arizona and the West 21 (Winter 1979): 335–354; Francis Paul Prucha, “American Indian Policy in the Twentieth Century,” Western Historical Quarterly 15 (January 1984): 4–18.

  70. Quotes from author’s notes, Annual Assembly of the Order of the Indian Wars, Colorado Springs, CO, September 4, 2003, in author’s possession.

  71. “The real Sand Creek …” from Jerry Russell interview, September 12, 2003. “Have to scramble …” from Jerry Russell to Alexa Roberts, e-mail, June 23, 2003, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. See also Alexa Roberts to Jerry Russell, e-mail, June 19, 2003, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Jerry Russell to Alexa Roberts, e-mail, June 19, 2003, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Jerry Russell to Ed Bearss, e-mail, September 5, 2002, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC.

  72. Quote from Jerry Russell interview, September 12, 2003. See also Alexa Roberts interview, August 26, 2004.

  73. “Real Sand Creek …” and “traditional site” from “Order of the Indian Wars, Press Release, September 6, 2003,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. “Discredit the …,” “every such …,” and “delight the press” from Alexa Roberts to Dwight Pitcaithley, chief historian, National Park Service, e-mail, August 6, 2003, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. See also Jerry Russell interview, September 12, 2003.

  6. YOU CAN’T CARVE THINGS IN STONE

  1. Quotes from Kiowa County, Colorado, http://www.kiowacountycolo.com/.

  2. Quote from Alexa Roberts, superintendent, Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, interview by author, August 26, 2004, telephone, notes in author’s possession.

  3. “The real …” from “Press Release, the Order of the Indian Wars, September 6, 2003,” in uncataloged files of the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site (FSCMNHS), currently held by National Park Service, Western Archeological and Conservation Center (NPS-WACC), Tucson, AZ. “A persuasive …” from Jerry Russell to Order of the Indian Wars members, e-mail, September 12, 2003, copy in author’s possession. See also Alexa Roberts, superintendent, Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, to Dwight Pitcaithley, chief historian, National Park Service, e-mail, August 6, 2003, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; “Press Release: Indian Wars Study Group Visits the ‘Real’ Sand Creek Site, September 6, 2003,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Jerry Russell to Order of the Indian Wars members, e-mail, September 13, 2003, copy in author’s possession.

  4. Quote from Jerry Russell, CEO, Order of the Indian Wars, interview by author, September 30, 2003, telephone, tape recording, in author’s possession. See also Greg Michno, independent scholar, interview by author, June 30, 2006, telephone, notes in author’s possession; Alexa Roberts interview, August 26, 2004; Kiowa County, Colorado, http://www.kiowacountycolo.com/.

  5. Quotes from Ron, September 11, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum, Kiowa County, Colorado, http://www.kiowacountycolo.com/signKiowaCounty.htm.

  6. “Sand Creek …” from Greg Michno, September 11, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum. “The real issue …,” “that is the question …,” “the village in 1864 was …,” and “regardless of how the new …” from Jeff Broome, September 12, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum. See also Greg Michno, September 19, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum.

  7. Greg Michno, September 19, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum.

  8. Quotes from Greg Michno interview, June 30, 2006. See also Gregory F. Michno, Battle at Sand Creek: The Military Pe
rspective (El Segundo, CA: Upton and Sons, 2004), 1–4.

  9. Greg Michno, September 19, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum.

  10. “Wounds …,” “obviously ignorant,” and “Sand Creek …” from Smoke Randolph, September 19, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum. “Concerned …” from Greg Michno, September 19, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum. “Well it …” and “Maybe he’s …” from Smoke Randolph, September 22, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum.

  11. See scattered posts by Jeff Barnes, Jeff Broome, Randy Garlipp, Greg Michno, Curt Neeley, Smoke Randolph, and Ron between September 11 and October 3, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum.

  12. “A good many …,” “one new …,” “a number …,” and “auburn and …” from Greg Michno, September 28, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum. “Traditional site,” “IS NOT CONNECTED…,” “who hide …,” “our good people …,” and “a serviceman …” from Jeff Broome, September 28, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum.

  13. “Pseudo-historians” from Ron, September 11 and 23, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum. “Research,” “faulty,” and “incomplete” from Smoke Randolph, September 28, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum. “What constitutes …” from Jeff Broome, September 28, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum. “Mail-order PhD” from Smoke Randolph, October 1, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum.

  14. “It was …,” “We wanted …,” and “It’s a …” from Alexa Roberts interview, August 26, 2004. “I wonder …” from Jeff Barnes, October 1, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum. See also Webmaster, October 1, 2003, and scattered posts by Jeff Broome, Greg Michno, Curt Neeley, Smoke Randolph, and Ron between September 11 and October 3, 2003, Sand Creek Massacre Discussion Forum.

  15. “If Custer …” from Jerry Russell, interview by author, September 12, 2003, telephone, tape recording, in author’s possession. “If they …” and “It’s not just …” from Laird Cometsevah, chief, Southern Cheyenne Tribe, interview by author, May 12, 2003, Denver, CO, tape recording, in author’s possession. See also “Controversy on Sand Creek Raging Now on Internet Site,” Watonga Republican, October 27, 2003, n.p., in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; John Sipes, “Tribal Historian Enters Colorado Internet Site Fray,” Watonga Republican, November 3, 2003, n.p., in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Jerry Russell interview, September 30, 2003; Alexa Roberts interview, August 26, 2004; Steve Brady, headman, Crazy Dogs Society, Northern Cheyenne Tribe, interview by author, October 24, 2004, Denver, CO, notes in author’s possession.

  16. Quotes from Charles Zakhem, captain, Colorado National Guard, interview by author, October 12, 2003, telephone, tape recording, in author’s possession. See also author’s notes, Colorado National Guard Staff Ride, October 23–24, 2003, in author’s possession.

  17. Quotes from author’s notes, Colorado National Guard Staff Ride, October 23–24, 2003.

  18. Ibid.

  19. Quotes from Charles Zakhem interview, October 12, 2003.

  20. Quotes from author’s notes, Colorado National Guard Staff Ride, October 23–24, 2003. See also “Spiritual Run Schedule Postponed and Changed,” Watonga Republican, November 19, 2003, B-4.

  21. “How does …” from author’s notes, Colorado National Guard Staff Ride, October 23–24, 2003. “Can you believe …” from Alexa Roberts interview, August 26, 2004. “The Sand Creek …” from “Briefing Statement, National Park Service, Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, October 24, 2003,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. See also Alexa Roberts, “Tribal Representatives Meet Colorado National Guardsmen,” Kiowa County Press, October 31, 2003, http://www.kiowacountypress.com/2003-10/10-31/Tribal%20Representatives%20meet%20Colorado%20National%20Guardsmen.htm.

  22. Lucky Star Casino, http://www.luckystarcasino.org/.

  23. “The traditional …” from Laird Cometsevah interview, May 12, 2003. “Understood their …” from Kit Miniclier, “Casino Operator Gives Massacre Site to Indians,” Denver Post, December 30, 2003, B-1. See also Emogene Bevitt, deputy chief, American Indian Liason Office, National Park Service, to Alexa Roberts, superintendent, Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, e-mail, December 18, 2003, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Sam Lewin, “Tribe Purchases Massacre Site,” Native American Times, December 17, 2003, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Deborah Frazier, “Massacre Site Given to Tribes,” Rocky Mountain News, December 29, 2003, B-1; “Press Release, December 16, 2003: Concho, OK—The Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes …,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC.

  24. “I don’t …” from Miniclier, “Casino Operator Gives Massacre Site to Indians,” B-1. “That was …” from Alexa Roberts, interview by author, September 27, 2004, telephone, notes in author’s possession. “Why should …” from Laird Cometsevah interview, May 12, 2003.

  25. Quotes from Suzan Shown Harjo, “Strictly Confidential: Who’s Keeping Secrets from the Sand Creek Descendants?,” Indian Country Today, December 22, 2003, http://IndianCountry.com/?1072109373.

  26. “Was completely …” and “is a …” from Steve Brady interview, October 24, 2004. “Didn’t care …” from Laird Cometsevah, interview by author, October 24, 2004, Denver, CO, notes in author’s possession. See also Steve Hillard, president, Council Tree Communications, interview by author, January 12, 2004, telephone, tape recording, in author’s possession; Gerald Vizenor, “Editorial Comment: Gambling on Sovereignty,” American Indian Quarterly 16 (Summer 1992): 411–413; Jessica R. Cattelino, “Tribal Gaming and Indigenous Sovereignty, with Notes from Seminole Country,” American Studies 46 (Fall–Winter 2005): 187–204; Franke Wilmer, “Indian Gaming: Players and Stakes,” Wicazo Sa Review 12 (Spring 1997): 89–114; Mary Lawlor, “Identity in Mashantucket,” American Quarterly 57 (March 2005): 153–177; Gary Sokolow, “The Future of Gambling in Indian Country,” American Indian Law Review 15 (1990–1991): 151–183; Gerald Vizenor, “Casino Coups,” Wicazo Sa Review 9 (Autumn 1993): 80–84.

  27. Quotes from Steve Brady interview, October 24, 2004. See also Deborah Frazier, “Indians File Huge Land Claim,” Rocky Mountain News, April 15, 2004, A-5.

  28. “We had …” and “fast cash” from Steve Brady interview, October 24, 2004. “Would allow …” from Deborah Frazier, “Gambling Supporter Says Towns Clamoring,” Rocky Mountain News, January 15, 2004, A-6. “It is outrageous …” from Mike McPhee and Kit Miniclier, “Casino Project Raises Outcry,” Denver Post, December 31, 2003, A-4.

  29. Quotes from Mike Soraghan, “Senator Tied to Backers of Casino Plan,” Denver Post, January 14, 2004, B-1. See also Mike Soraghan, “Okla. Tribes Push for Controversial Casino near Denver,” Denver Post, January 15, 2004, A-1.

  30. “We’ve had …” and “Well, I suppose …” from Janet Frederick, director, Kiowa County Economic Development Corporation, interview by author, November 24, 2004, Eads, CO, notes in author’s possession. “If they …” from Alexa Roberts interview, August 26, 2004.

  31. “Ghastly …” from “Casino Plan Insensitive,” Denver Post, January 3, 2004, C-15. “Why lament …” from Al Lewis, “Plan Bets on Odd Idea to Heal Past,” Denver Post, January 4, 2004, K-1. See also “An Indian Casino on the Plains?,” Rocky Mountain News, January 1, 2004, A-41; Peter Blake, “The Deck Is Stacked against Indian Casino on Plains,” Rocky Mountain News, January 3, 2004, C-12; Mike Soraghan, “Casino ‘Crossfire’ Infuriates Campbell,” Denver Post, January 16, 2004, A-1; Kit Miniclier, “Indian Casino Not a Sure Bet,” Denver Post, February 4, 2004, A-1; “Indian Casino Plan Is a Bad Bargain,” Denver Post, May 17, 2004, B-7; Jim Spencer, “Land Claim Has Feel of Extortion,” Denver Post, May 19, 2004, C-1.

  32. “The tribes …” from Frazier, “Gambling Supporter Says Towns Clamoring,” A-6. “The proposition …” from Mike Soraghan, “Indians’ Leveraged Efforts for Casinos Reach beyond Colorado,” Denver Post, August 16, 2004, A-1. “These claims …” from Soraghan, “Okla. Tribes Push for Controversial Casino Near Denver,” A-1. “Reparations are entirely right …�
� from Steve Hillard interview, January 12, 2004. See also Deborah Frazier, “Casino Plan Stirs Opposition,” Rocky Mountain News, January 1, 2004, A-26; Karen Rouse, “Casino Group Offers Schools $1 Billion to Get State Support,” Denver Post, July 8, 2004, A-1; David Harsanyi, “Luck May Be on Casino Backers’ Side,” Denver Post, June 26, 2004, C-1; “Indian Casino Plan Is a Bad Bargain,” B-7.

  33. “Does not …” from “Press Release, Council Tree Communications, March 16, 2004, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. “You can …” from Steve Hillard, CEO, Native American Land Group, to Laird Cometsevah, president, Traditional Sand Creek Cheyenne Descendants, March 16, 2004, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. “In similar …” from Arthur Kane, “Okla. Tribes Seek 27 Million Acres in Eastern Colo.,” Denver Post, April 15, 2004, B-1. See also Deborah Frazier, “Beauprez Opposed to Casino,” Rocky Mountain News, January 3, 2004, A-15; Soraghan, “Casino ‘Crossfire’ Infuriates Campbell,” A-1; “Don’t Let Gambling Expand,” Denver Post, January 17, 2004, C-15; Mike Soraghan, “Tribes to Pursue Colorado Casino,” Denver Post, April 14, 2004, B-1; Frazier, “Indians File Huge Land Claim,” A-5; Andy Vuong, “Tribes Put Title Firms on Notice,” Denver Post, May 4, 2004, C-1; “Owens Right to Reject Tribes’ Offer,” Denver Post, June 21, 2004, B-7.