1831

by Louis P. Masur

  43 Martineau, Retrospect of Western Travel, vol. I, p. 172; Charles Wiltse, ed., The Papers of Daniel Webster: Speeches and Formal Writings (Hanover, N. H., 1986), vol. I, pp. 347–48.

  44 Daniel Webster to Elisha Whittlesey, May 10, 1831, in Charles Wiltse, ed., The Papers of Daniel Webster (Hanover, N. H., 1977), vol. III, p. 112; Daniel Webster to Albert Haller Tracy, January 15, 1831, ibid., p. 97; Daniel Webster to Ambrose Spencer, November 16, 1831, ibid., p. 134.

  45 Speech at public dinner in New York, March 24, 1831, in Wiltse, ed., Papers of Daniel Webster, vol. I, p. 458.

  46 Diary of Philip Hone, vol. I, p. 39; Daniel Webster to Charles Miner, August 28, 1831, in Wiltse, ed., Papers of Daniel Webster, vol. III, p. 120; Robert Remini, Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time (New York, 1997), quote following p. 542, p. 29n; Hamilton, Men and Manners in America, p. 285; Daniel Webster to Ambrose Spencer, November 16, 1831, in Wiltse, ed., Papers of Daniel Webster, vol. III, p. 135.

  47 Hamilton, Men and Manners in America, p. 154; Daniel Webster to Henry Clay, October 5, 1831, in Wiltse, ed., Papers of Daniel Webster, vol. III, p. 129; Henry Clay to Francis Brooke, May 1, 1831, in Seager, ed., Clay Papers, vol. VIII, p. 342; Josiah Johnston to Henry Clay,, January 7, 1831, ibid., p. 318.

  48 James Parton, Life of Andrew Jackson (New York, 1868), vol. I, p. 104; Hamilton, Men and Manners in America, pp. 276-77, 228-29; Gustave Beaumont, quoted in George Wilson Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America (New York, 1938; reprinted Baltimore, 1996), p. 664; Henry Tudor, Narrative of a Tour in North America (London, 1834), p. 470.

  49 Hamilton, Men and Manners in America, p. 282; Clyde N. Wilson, ed., The Papers of John C. Calhoun, (Columbia, S.C., 1978), vol. XI, pp. 173-91.

  50 Wilson, ed., Calhoun Papers, vol. XI, p. 295.

  51 Monroe to Madison, April 11, 1831, in Stanislaus Murray Hamilton, ed., The Writings of James Monroe (New York, 1898). See Lucius Wilmerding, Jr., James Monroe: Public Claimant (New Brunswick, N.J., 1960); Harry Ammon, James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity (New York, 1971).

  52 Charles Francis Adams, ed., Memoirs of John Quincy Adams (Philadelphia, 1876), vol. VIII, p. 360, 401–2; John Quincy Adams, Eulogy on the Life and Character of James Monroe (Boston, 1831); Gilman and Ferguson, eds., Emerson Journals, vol. III, p. 282.

  53 John Quincy Adams to John C. Calhoun, January 14, 1831, in Wilson, ed., Calhoun Papers, vol. XI, p. 296; Daniel Webster to Henry Clay, April 4, 1831, in Seager, ed., Clay Papers, vol. VIII, p. 331; Andrew Jackson to Charles J. Love, March 7, 1831, in John Spencer Bassett, ed., Correspondence of Andrew Jackson (Washington, D.C., 1929), vol. IV, p. 246.

  54 John C. Calhoun to James H. Hammond, January 15, 1831, in Wilson, ed., Calhoun Papers, vol. XI, p. 299; Andrew Jackson to John C. McLemore, April 1829, in Bassett, ed., Jackson Correspondence, vol. IV, p. 21; Louis McLane, quoted in Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832 (New York, 1981), p. 162; Charles Ambler, ed., The Life and Diary of John Floyd (Richmond, 1918), pp. 148–49; Gaillard Hunt, ed., The First Forty Years of Washington Society: The Letters of Margaret Bayard Smith (New York, 1906), p. 318.

  55 A full account of the Eaton affair is offered in John F. Marszalek, The Petticoat Affair: Manners, Mutiny, and Sex in Andrew Jackson’s White House (New York, 1997).

  56 Andrew Jackson to Richard Call, July 5, 1829, in Bassett, ed., Jackson Correspondence, vol. IV, p. 52; Jackson to Stiles, March 23, 1829 in Parton, ed., Life of Andrew Jackson, vol. III, pp. 188-89.

  57 Andrew Jackson to John C. McLemore, April 1829, in Bassett, ed., Jackson Correspondence, vol. IV, p. 20; Andrew Jackson to Samuel Swartwout, September 27, 1829, ibid., p. 78; Andrew Jackson to Andrew Donelson, March 24, 1831, ibid., p. 253; Andrew Jackson to John Coffee, May 13, 1831, ibid., p.288.

  58 Philadelphia Sun, April 28, 1831; National Intelligencer, May 4, 1831.

  59 C. F. Adams, ed., Memoirs of J. Q. Adams, vol. VIII, pp. 359-60; National Gazette, April 28, 1831.

  60 Marszalek, Petticoat Affair, p. 161; United States Gazette, April 29, 1831.

  61 C. F. Adams, ed., Memoirs of J. Q. Adams, vol. VIII, p. 317; Philadelphia National Gazette, quoted in Maine Working Men’s Advocate, May 4, 183 1.

  62 Boardman, America and the Americans, p. 76; Tocqueville, Journey to America, pp. 266, 239; Hamilton, Men and Manners in America, p. 245.

  63 Henry Clay to Edward Everett, June 12, 1831, in Seager, ed., Clay Papers, vol. VIII, p. 360; Andrew Jackson to Martin Van Buren, September 21, 1831, in Bassett, ed., Jackson Correspondence, vol. IV, p. 351.

  STATE AND NATION

  1 Edward Everett to Charlotte Everett, February 22, 1831, in Everett Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society.

  2 Wirt quoted in R. Kent Newmeyer, Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story: Statesman of the Old Republic (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985), p. 425; Joseph Story to Sarah Story in William W Story, ed., Life and Letters of Joseph Story (Boston, 1851), vol. II, p. 87; Charles Francis Adams, ed., Memoirs of John Quincy Adams (Philadelphia, 1876), vol. VIII, pp. 315–16; Niles’ Weekly Register, March 26, 1831, p. 68.

  3 See Francis P. Prucha, American Indian Policy in the Formative Years (Cambridge, Mass., 1962); Jackson quoted in Michael Paul Rogin, Fathers and Children (New York, 1975), p. 131.

  4 Cherokee Phoenix, November 12, 1831, in Theda Perdue, ed., Cherokee Editor: The Writings of Elias Boudinot (Knoxville, Tenn., 1983), pp. 140-43.

  5 Godfrey Vigne, Six Months in America (Boston, 1832), vol. I, pp. 216–17; Jackson’s public pronouncements can be followed in James D. Richardson, A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789—1908 (Washington, D.C., 1908), vol. II, esp. pp. 456-59, 519-23, 554–55, 603-5.

  6 Register of Debates in Congress (Washington, D.C., 1830), vol. VI, part 1, pp. 309–20, 343–57.

  7 Ibid., part 2, pp. 1058-79.

  8 Register of Debates in Congress (Washington, D.C., 1831), vol. VII, pp. 618–19, 682–84.

  9 Ibid., pp. 685–717. Opponents of removal also published Everett’s speech separately in pamphlet form.

  10 Wirt to Ross, June 4, 1830, in Gary E. Moulton, ed., The Papers of Chief John Ross (Norman, Okla., 1985), vol. I, p. 190. Wirt’s exchange with Gilmer was widely reprinted in the newspapers; see, for example, Niles’ Weekly Register, September 18, 1830, pp. 69–71. Wirt’s correspondence with Carr is in John P. Kennedy, Memoirs of the Life of William Wirt (Philadelphia, 1851), vol. II, pp. 253–58.

  11 Niles’ Weekly Register, January 8, 1831; Joseph Story to John Ashmun, January 30, 1831, in W. W. Story, ed., Life and Letters of J. Story, vol. II, pp. 47–48.

  12 The oral arguments in the case are reported in Richard Peters, The Case of the Cherokee Nation Against the State of Georgia (Philadelphia, 1831). Peters, the court reporter, published the volume to promote public sentiment in favor of the Cherokee; he dedicated it to Joseph Story. See pp. 92, 95, 155–56, 158-59.

  13 C. F. Adams, ed., Memoirs of J. Q. Adams, vol. VIII, p. 343.

  14 Peters, Cherokee Nation Against State of Georgia, pp. 15–80; Joseph Story to Mrs. Joseph Story, January 13, 1832, in W W. Story, ed., Life and Letters of J. Story, vol. II, p. 79.

  15 Richmond Enquirer, March 24, 1831.

  16 The account of the meeting was widely reprinted. See, for example, ibid., June 24, 1831.

  17 Vermont Telegraph, quoted in John Ehle, Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation (New York, 1988), p. 252; Joseph Story to Mrs. Joseph Story, February 26, 1832, in W. W. Story, ed., Life and Letters of J. Story, vol. II, pp. 83-84.

  18 Worcester v. State of Georgia, 6 Peters 515 (1832), p. 243; Joseph Story to George Ticknor, March 8, 1832, in W. W Story, ed., Life and Letters of J. Story, vol. II, p. 83.

  19 Andrew Jackson quoted in Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832 (New York, 1981), p. 276; Evans Jones quoted in William G. McLoughlin, “The Reverend Evan Jones and the Cherokee Trail of Tears, 1838-1839,” Georgia Historical Quarterly
73 (1989): 569.

  20 Ellen Whitney, ed., The Black Hawk War, 1831–32 (Springfield, Ill., 1973), vol. II, pp. 3, 13.

  21 William Clark to Edmund Gaines, May 28, 1831, in Whitney, ed., Black Hawk War, p. 17; “Memorandum of Talks between Edmund P. Gaines and the Sauk, June 4, 5, 7, 1831,” ibid., pp. 27–33. See also the account provided by Black Hawk first published in 1833, in Donald Jackson, ed., Black Hawk: An Autobiography (Carbondale, Ill., 1964).

  22 Roger L. Nichols, Black Hawk and the Warrior’s Path (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1992).

  23 Jackson, ed., Black Hawk Autobiography, pp. 114, 139.

  24 Brian Dippie, Catlin and His Contemporaries: The Politics of Patronage (Lincoln, Neb., 1990), p. 5. See also George Catlin, Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of North American Indians (London, 1844; New York, 1973).

  25 Catlin recounts the story of Wi-jun-jon in Letters and Notes, vol. II, pp. 194-200. See also the discussion in Dippie, Catlin, pp. 61–63.

  26 Tocqueville to his mother, December 25, 1831, in Roger Boesche, ed., Alexis de Tocqueville: Selected Letters on Politics and Society (Berkeley, Calif., 1985), pp. 70–73.

  27 “First Annual Message,” in Richardson, Compilation, vol. II, p. 458; James A. Hamilton to Andrew Jackson, January 4, 1830, in John Spencer Bassett, ed., Jackson Correspondence (Washington, D.C., 1929), vol. IV, pp. 111–14; “Second Annual Message,” in Richardson, Compilation, vol. II, pp. 519-20.

  28 Biddle to Jonathan Roberts, January 15, 1831, quoted in Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson, p. 304; [George Bancroft,] “Bank of the United States,” North American Review 33 (January 1831): 22; A Merchant [David Henshaw,]; Remarks upon the Bank of the United States (Boston, 1831), pp. 14-15.

  29 Register of Debates in Congress, vol. VII, pp. 46-78.

  30 Stephen Simpson, The Working Man’s Manual (Philadelphia, 1831), pp. 253, 263.

  31 Jackson to John Randolph, December 22, 1831, in John Spencer Bassett, ed., Jackson Correspondence (Washington D.C., 1929), vol. IV, p. 387.

  32 McLane quoted in John A. Munroe, Louis McLane: Federalist and Jacksonian (New Brunswick, N.J., 1973), p. 319.

  33 C. F. Mercer to Nicholas Biddle, December 12, 1831, in Reginald McGrane, ed., Correspondence of Nicholas Biddle Dealing with National Affairs, 1807–1844 (Boston, 1919), p. 141; Henry Clay to Nicholas Biddle, December 15, 1831, in Robert Seager, ed., The Papers of Henry Clay (Lexington, Ky., 1984), vol. VIII, p. 433; Daniel Webster to Nicholas Biddle, December 18, 1831, in Charles Wiltse, ed., The Papers of Daniel Webster (Hanover, N.H., 1977), vol. III, p. 139.

  34 Thomas Cadwalader to Nicholas Biddle, December 21, 1831, in McGrane, ed., Correspondence of Nicholas Biddle, p. 148.

  35 James Madison to Charles Ingersoll, June 25, 1831, in Letters and Other Writings of James Madison (Philadelphia, 1865), vol. IV, pp. 183-187; Andrew Jackson quoted in Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Bank War (New York, 1967), pp. 15-16.

  36 “Veto Message,” in Richardson, Compilation, vol. II, pp. 576-91.

  37 Nicholas Biddle to Henry Clay, August 1, 1832, in McGrane, ed., Correspondence of Nicholas Biddle, p. 196.

  38 James Martin, Jr., to Willie P. Mangum, December 27, 1831, in The Papers of Willie Person Mangum (Raleigh, 1950), vol. I, p. 441; free-trade proponent quoted in William Freehling, Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina, 1816–1836 (New York, 1965), p. 94.

  39 Thomas Hamilton, Men and Manners in America (Philadelphia, 1833), p. 108; Mary E. Dewey, ed., Life and Letters of Catherine Sedgwick (New York, 1872), p. 215.

  40 Vigne, Six Months in Amerlca, vol. I, pp. 211–12; James Hamilton, Jr., Speech at Waterborough (Charleston, 1828), in William Freehling, ed., The Nullification Era (New York, 1967), pp. 48–61.

  41 South Carolina Exposition and Protest, in Clyde N. Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., The Papers of John C. Calhoun (Columbia, S.C., 1977), vol. X, pp. 444–539; Richmond Enquirer, quoted in Banner of the Constitution, June 1, 1831.

  42 Hamilton, Men and Manners in America, p. 169; James Madison to David Hoffman, June 13, 1832, in Letters of Madison, vol. IV, p. 223; James Madison to Reynolds Chapman, January 6, 1831, in Letters of Madison, vol. IV, pp. 143–50.

  43 James Madison to Joseph G. Cabell, September 16, 1831, in Letters of Madison, vol. IV, p. 196; James Madison to Townsend, October 18, 1831, ibid., p. 200; James Madison to James Robertson, March 27, 1831; ibid., p. 167; James Madison to Henry Clay, October 9, 1830, ibid., p. 117; James Madison to Townsend, October 18, 1831, ibid., p. 199; James Madison to Nicholas Trist, December 1831, ibid., p. 204.

  44 James Madison to Joseph C. Cabell, September 16, 1831, ibid., p. 196; James Madison to Mathew Carey, ibid., p. 192.

  45 Jackson quoted in Remini, Andrew Jackson, p. 70; “Second Annual Message,” in Richardson, Compilation, vol. II, pp. 511–18.

  46 Andrew Jackson to Martin Van Buren, November 14, 1831, in Bassett, ed. Jackson Correspondence, vol. IV, p. 374; Jackson to Van Buren, July 23, 1831, ibid., p. 316; Jackson to Van Buren, September 18, 1831, ibid., p. 351; Jackson to Robert Y. Hayne, February 8, 1831, ibid., p. 242.

  47 Hamilton, Men and Manners in America, pp. 168–69, 111; J. M. Peck, Guide for Emigrants (Boston, 1831), pp. 5–6.

  48 J. P. Mayer, ed., Alexis de Tocqueville: Journey to America (New Haven, 1962), pp. 66, 182; Alexis de Tocqueville to Ernest de Chabrol, October 7, 1831, in Boesche, ed., Tocqueville: Letters, p. 59.

  49 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Phillips Bradley (New York, 1945), vol. I, p. 427; George Wilson Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America (New York, 1938; reprinted Baltimore, 1996), pp. 71, 131.

  50 New York Evening Post, May 21, 1831; The Journal of the Free Trade Convention, Held in Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1831), pp. 51, 62; “Address to the People of the United States,” in Journal of the Free Trade Convention, pp. 31–41.

  51 Banner of the Constitution, November 30, 1831.

  52 Journal of the Proceedings of the Friends of Domestic Industry (Baltimore, 1831), p. 16.

  53 Saturday Bulletin, July 2, 1831; Speech of the Hon. George McDuffie, at a Public Dinner Given to Him by the Citizens of Charleston, (S.C.) May 19, 1831 (Charleston, 1831), pp. 4, 25, 28–29.

  54 Quoted in Freehling, ed., Nullification Era, p. 104; Duff Green to John C. Calhoun, May 31, 1831, in Wilson and Hemphill, eds., Calhoun Papers, vol. XI, pp. 398–401; John C. Calhoun to Christopher Vandeventer, May 25, 1831, ibid., p. 396.

  55 John C. Calhoun to James H. Hammond, May 16, 1831, in Wilson and Hemphill, eds., Calhoun Papers, vol. XI, p. 383; John C. Calhoun to Christopher Vandeventer, May 25, 1831, ibid., p. 394; John C. Calhoun to David Caldwell, May 1, 1831, ibid., pp. 375–76; John C. Calhoun to the Pendleton Messenger, July 26, 1831, ibid., pp. 413-40.

  56 Hammond quoted in Freehling, Prelude to Civil War, p. 166; Richard E. Ellis, The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States’ Rights and the Nullification Crisis (New York, 1987), p. 127; United States Gazette, August 24, 1831; John Quincy Adams to Henry Clay, September 7, 1831, in Seager, ed., Clay Papers, vol. VIII, p. 397; Henry Clay to James Conover, August 26, 1831, ibid., p. 392; Andrew Jackson to Martin Van Buren, September 5, 1831, in Bassett, ed., Jackson Correspondence, vol. IV, p. 346.

  57 Proceedings of the Celebration of the Fourth of July at Charleston, South Carolina (Charleston, 1831); Robert Hayne, An Oration, Delivered in the Independent or Congregational Church, Charleston, Before the State Rights & Free Trade Party, the State Society of Cincinnati, the Revolution Society, the ‘76 Association, and Several Volunteer Companies of Militia; on the 4th of July, 1831, Being the 55th Anniversary of American Independence (Charleston, S.C., 1831), pp. 10-11, 13, 20-21.

  58 Proceedings of the Celebration, pp. 46, 64.

  59 Francis T. Brooke to Henry Clay, September 4, 1831, in Seager, ed., Clay Papers, vol. VIII, p. 397; Liberator, January 8, 1831, p. 7; United States Gazette, September 24, 1831.

  60 Citizen of Abbeville, Signs of
the Times (Columbia, S.C., 1831), pp. 24–25, 30.

  61 William Drayton, An Oration Delivered in the First Presbyterian Church, Charleston, on Monday July 4, 1831 (Charleston, S.C., 1831), pp. 41, 21-23, 26–29.

  62 Memoirs of John Quincy Adams (Philadelphia, 1876), vol. VIII, p. 377; John Quincy Adams, An Oration Addressed to the Citizens of the Town of Quincy, on the Fourth of July , 1831, the Fifty-Fifth Anniversary of the Independence of the United States of America (Boston, 1831), pp. 6, 26, 34–36.

  63 Quoted in Merrill Petersen, The Great Triumvirate (New York, 1987), p. 214.

  64 Freehling, ed., The Nullification Era, includes many of the relevant documents; Richmond Enquirer, quoted in Banner of the Constitution, June 1, 1831.