by Susan Ronald
7. Gãmini Salgãdo, The Elizabethan Underworld (London: Folio Society, 2006), 1.
8. Ibid., 8.
9. David Cressy, Bonfires and Bells: National Memory and the Protestant Calendar in Elizabethan and Stuart England (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1989), 26.
10. Ibid., 8.
11. CW, 665; Twelfth Night, 2.3.88–89.
12. See Dame Frances Yates’s seminal work The Art of Memory (London: Pimlico, 2005).
13. Eamon Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 570.
14. Ibid.
15. Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars, 572–73, 566.
16. Ibid., 577–78.
17. T. Cooper, Certaine Sermons (London, 1580), 164. These sentiments were echoed by John Knox.
18. H. Holland, A Treatise against Witchcraft (Cambridge, 1590), 2.
19. Tittler, Nicholas Bacon, 59.
20. CSP, Rome, 75, no. 140.
21. The first councils attempted were in Mantua in 1537, then Vicenza in 1538. The first Trent council was called for 1542 but was boycotted by the French, meaning that the first time it met was in December 1545.
22. Ibid., 75–77.
23. Ibid., 79.
24. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 234.
25. Ibid., 235. See also BL, Add. MSS 35830 f. 228.
26. CSP, Rome, 79, no. 153.
27. Ibid., 59, no. 126.
28. Frieda, Catherine de Medici, 159.
Six: Untrustworthy Allies
1. CSP, Foreign, 1561-1562 (London, 1865), 4:301, no. 598.
2. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 245–46.
3. CSP, Foreign, 4:21–28.
4. SP 70/37 f., May 2, 1562.
5. CSP, Venice, 337.
6. CSP, Rome, 77–78.
7. Ibid., 82.
8. Horsey had been exiled from England ever since Mary Tudor’s battle for her crown. He had been one of Robert Dudley’s accomplices in the effort to put Lady Jane Grey on the throne. He had only returned from his French exile in 1561.
9. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 248–49.
10. CSP, Spain, 259.
11. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 257.
12. N. M. Sutherland, Princes, Politics and Religion, 1547–1589 (London: Hambledon Press, 1984), 140–53.
13. CW, 142–43.
Seven: Christ’s Soldiers
1. Patrick Collinson, Godly People (London: Hambledon Press, 1983), 11, attributed to John Huckford of Elmstead in the proceedings in the Archdeaconry Court in Colchester.
2. Ibid., 7.
3. Christopher Haigh, “Puritan Evangelism in the Reign of Elizabeth I,” English Historical Review 92, no. 362 (January 1977): 30–31.
4. Neale, Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments, 108n.
5. Fraser, Mary Queen of Scots, 152–53.
6. SP 63/5/101.
7. The Scots were so-called “redshanks” because of their pale, red legs exposed by their kilts.
8. SP 63/1/79.
9. SP 63/4/22 viii.
10. SP 63/4/37.
11. ODNB, “Shane O’Neill.” See also William Camden, The History of the most renowned and victorius Princess Elizabeth (printed by M. Flesher, London, 1688).
12. Shane O’Neill is the only Irish “freedom fighter” who was not resurrected in the twentieth century as a folk hero, though some have admired his military tactics.
13. Ciaran Brady, The Chief Governors: The Rise and Fall of Reform Government in Tudor Ireland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 10.
14. Marcus Tanner, Ireland’s Holy Wars (New Haven and London: Yale Nota Bene, 2003), 88.
Eight: The Great Catholic Threat
1. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 315. See also James Melville, Memoirs (London, G. Scott Printers, 1683), 51.
2. Ibid., 317.
3. Fraser, Mary Queen of Scots, 228.
4. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 340.
5. CSP, Rome, 180–81.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid., 182–83.
8. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 347–84.
9. Fraser, Mary Queen of Scots, 253.
Nine: Betrayal amid Dreamy Spires
1. CSP, Rome, 190.
2. Patrick Collinson, The Elizabethan Puritan Movement (London: Jonathan Cape, 1967), 72. Collinson does identify St. Stephens Cornhill but it is an error on his part.
3. Ibid., 78.
4. Ibid., 79.
5. Ronald, Pirate Queen, chap. 9.
6. SP 12/176/68.
7. Alan Crossley et al., eds., Victoria County History: Oxfordshire, vol. 4, The City of Oxford, “Roman Catholicism,” 312, available online at British History Online, http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?pubid-10.
8. Collinson, Puritan Movement, 62.
9. Alice Hogge, God’s Secret Agents (London: HarperCollins, 2005), 37–38.
10. Ibid., 41.
11. ODNB, “William Allen.” See also Allen, Modest Defence (London: Manresa Press, 1914), 104.
12. John Jewel, bishop of Salisbury’s Apology of the Church of England (translated from the Latin Apologia pro Ecclesia Anglicana), written in 1561, was officially sponsored by the church and published in 1562. It intended to show a one-sided view that the Church of England faced no threats from any other Protestant quarter. In other words, it was a work of government propaganda. Jewel was a Marian exile bishop.
13. ODNB, “William Allen.”
14. ODNB, “Paul Wentworth.”
15. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 364.
16. BL, MS Cotton Charter IV.38 (2), written in Elizabeth’s hand and much revised. Her handwriting, normally extremely legible and quite beautiful, shows signs of anger and haste.
Ten: Iconoclastic Fury
1. Geoffrey Parker, The Dutch Revolt (London: 1977), Allen Lane, 30.
2. This payment was known as the “Nine Years’ Aid.”
3. G. Groen van Prinsterer, Archives (Leiden: 1835–37), 1st ser. 1:152, Granvelle to Philip II, March 10, 1563.
4. Parker, Dutch Revolt, 54.
5. Ibid., 63.
6. Ibid., 57. See also original sources in footnote 33.
7. Ibid., 58.
8. Jews who nominally followed Christian religions.
9. Ibid., p. 66. Margaret had defended this “usurpation” by the nobles, but the king never read her letter, issuing the abstract Estado 527/70 written by Gonzalo Pérez.
10. Alba became the Spanish governor-general in the Netherlands from 1567 to 1573 and was given the nickname of “the Iron Duke” for his harsh treatment of the local population.
11. CSP, Spain, 404, no. 285. Philip makes it clear here to Guzman de Silva, his ambassador to England, that this is only a family visit, and not a matter of state.
12. Ibid., 72.
13. Ibid., 76.
14. CSP, Foreign, 8:21.
15. CSP, Spain, 1:76.
16. Groen van Prinsterer, Archives, 2:364, Horn (Montigny) to Orange. In 1569, the Duke of Alba accused Philip’s Flemish groom of the bedchamber, Jean Vandenesse, of leaking this state secret to Horn and Orange. Fortunately for Vandenesse, he died before a verdict of his guilt could be confirmed.
17. C. V. Wedgwood, William the Silent (London: Phoenix Press, 1944), 69. See also Groen van Prinsterer, Archives, 1:440.
18. CSP, Rome, 214–15.
Eleven: Two Murders and Mayhem
1. Darnley’s skull, now at the Royal College of Surgeons in London, has been analyzed and found to be pitted with traces of “a virulent syphilitic disease,” according to the report by Karl Pearson, “Skull and Portraits of Henry Stuart Lord Darnley,” Biometrika 20 (July 1928): 1–104. I thank Lady Antonia Fraser, DBE, for pointing out this reference in her Mary Queen of Scots.
2. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 374.
3. CW, 116.
4. CSP, Spain, 1:397.
5. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 378.
6. Ibid., 378–79.
7. Frieda, Catherine de Medici, 199.
8. ODNB, “Shane O’Neill.”
9. CSP, Rome, 266–67.
10. The “English Pale” is defined as an area of English jurisdiction and colonization. The term “pale” on its own denotes a stake, fence, or boundary. The area “inside the Pale” became synonymous with the civilized English colony, as opposed to “beyond the Pale,” where the local population was deemed to be savage or wild.
11. Tanner, Ireland’s Holy Wars, 88.
12. SP 63/20/13, January 18, 1567
13. ODNB, “Shane O’Neill.” See also Campion, “Ten Reasons,” proposed to his adversaries for disputation in the name of the faith and presented to the illustrious members of the university (London, Manresa Press, 1914), 130.
14. Collinson, Puritan Movement, 129.
15. John Bossy, The English Catholic Community, 1570–1850 (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1975), 12.
16. CSP, Spain, 1:418, no. 294; 432, no. 300.
17. Parker, Dutch Revolt, 106.
18. CSP, Rome, 260.
19. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 394.
Twelve: An Ill-Conceived Escape
1. Fraser, Mary Queen of Scots, 347.
2. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 399.
3. Ibid., 406.
4. SP 63/26/8.
5. The court faction was mostly les politiques. They were Catholic and possessed a political will to see beyond the religious questions that divided the nation.
6. Many believed Philip’s choice of ambassador was in retaliation for Elizabeth’s unfortunate choice of Dr. Man as her ambassador to Madrid, who decried publicly that Pope Pius V was nothing but a “canting little monk.”
7. CSP, Spain, 2:75.
8. Ronald, Pirate Queen, 129–38. The incident is known as the Seizure of Alba’s Pay Ships, and it set alight international diplomatic correspondence between England, the Low Countries, Spain, and Rome for months.
9. CSP, Spain, 2:91–92.
10. Ronald, Pirate Queen, 129.
11. CSP, Spain, 2:111.
12. The plan is thought to have come originally from Maitland. Norfolk appears to have hesitated initially but was influenced by Leicester, Arundel, and Pembroke as well as Mary in letters. He never met Mary.
13. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 449.
14. ODNB, “Thomas Howard, fourth duke of Norfolk.”
15. Conyers Read, Mr. Secretary Walsingham and the Policy of Queen Elizabeth, 3 vols. (Hamden, CT: Archon Press), 1:66. See also SP. Dom Eliz. lix. II.
16. Ibid., 65–68, for the entire Ridolfi incident in the 1569 plots against Elizabeth.
17. Ibid., 452–55.
18. R. R. Reid, “The Rebellion of the Earls, 1569,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, n.s., 20 (1906): 184.
19. Ibid., 187.
20. CSP, Rome, 1:314.
21. Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, 460.
22. Reid, “Rebellion of the Earls, 1569,” 197.
23. Conyers Read, Lord Burghley and Queen Elizabeth (London: Jonathan Cape, 1960), 20.
Thirteen: Regnans in Excelsis
1. CSP, Rome, 323.
2. Ibid., 324.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., 326–27.
5. Ibid., 328.
6. CSP, Foreign, 9:196–97.
7. Read, Lord Burghley and Queen Elizabeth, 22–23. See also La Mothe-Fénélon, Correspondance (Geneva, Droz, 1999), 3:100.
8. CSP, Spain, 2:254.
9. Ibid., 27.
10. These were, of course, the parents of the murdered Henry, Lord Darnley.
11. Ibid.
12. CW, 163.
Fourteen: The English State, Plots, and Counterplots
1. A Sermon preached before the Queen’s Majesty, EEBO, 27–28.
2. Peter Wentworth was married to Francis Walsingham’s sister Elizabeth.
3. Neale, Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments, 1:185.
4. A mythological bird that breathes a ghostlike fire.
5. Neale, Elizabeth and Her Parliaments, p. 186.
6. William Herle had been acting as a part-time government agent since 1559. He was well educated and spoke Latin, Flemish, Italian, French, and Spanish. Working as a sometime “merchant,” or more accurately pirate, he was able to make valuable contacts on behalf of Cecil in northern Germany and the Low Countries. His later official embassies were not successful, though he was used as a spy until his death in 1589.
7. Read, Lord Burghley and Queen Elizabeth, 39.
8. Neale, Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments, 1:226. See also Hooker, 490.
9. Ibid., 41.
10. Parker, Dutch Revolt, 124.
11. Ibid., 43.
12. CSP, Spain, 2:348.
13. Kervyn de Lettenhove, ed., Relations politiques des Pays-Bas et de l’Angleterre, vol. 5, (Brussels: Académie Royale, 1885), 230.
14. Read, Mr. Secretary Walsingham and the Policy of Queen Elizabeth, 1:142–43.
15. Ibid., 149.
16. R. J. Knecht, Catherine de’ Medici (London: Longman, 1998), 234.
Fifteen: Massacre in Paris
1. If Catherine de’ Medici’s three remaining sons—Charles IX; Henry, Duke of Anjou; and Francis, Duke of Alençon—died without issue, then Henry of Navarre was next in line for France’s throne. His mother, Jeanne d’Albret, queen of Navarre, had inherited the small kingdom on the Spanish border from her uncle Francis I, grandfather of the present king.
2. Knecht, Catherine de’ Medici, 148. See also Abel Desjardins, ed., Negociations diplomatiques de la France avec la Toscane (Paris: Giuseppe Canestrini, 1859), 3:711.
3. BL, Cotton MSS, Vespasian F vi. Folio 4b.
4. Collins, Keepers of the Keys of Heaven, 366.
5. For more detail on these swashbuckling seafarers, see Ronald, Pirate Queen, 158–60.
6. Sigismund-Augustus had not only maintained the peace in Poland between Protestant and Catholic successfully and united Poland and Lithuania, but he had also ensured the smooth succession through the Union of Lublin to elect his successor. There was probably no poorer choice than Anjou to replace him.
7. Collins, Keepers of the Keys of Heaven, 372.
8. Read, Mr. Secretary Walsingham and the Policy of Queen Elizabeth, 2:211.
9. Ibid., 212.
10. Ibid., 213.
11. Ibid., 215.
12. Frieda, Catherine de’ Medici, 248.
13. Ronald, Pirate Queen, 160–61.
14. CW, 215.
15. Read, Mr. Secretary Walsingham and the Policy of Queen Elizabeth, 2:233. See also Sir Dudley Digges, The Compleat Ambassador (London: Thomas Newcombe for Gabriel Bedell and Thomas Collins, 1655), p. 250.
16. Due to her leading role in the assassination of Coligny, Catherine has been remembered by history as “the Black Queen” and whatever good she had done was completely undermined.
17. Read, Mr. Secretary Walsingham and the Policy of Queen Elizabeth, 234.
18. J. B. Steane, ed., Christopher Marlowe: The Complete Plays (London: Penguin, 1969), 300–301, 1.2.33–63.
Sixteen: The Puritan Underworld of London
1. R. J. Knecht, The French Civil Wars (London: Longman, 2000), 165–66.
2. Collinson, Godly People, 251, translated from the French by the author.
3. Ibid., 252.
4. Collinson, Elizabethan Puritan Movement, 114.
5. Collinson, Godly People, 275.
6. Ibid.
7. Locke was the brother of the merchant adventurer Michael Lok, who was ruined by the Frobisher North American gold scam. See Ronald, Pirate Queen, 210–13.
8. Collinson, Godly People, 316. See also Wilcox’s Works (1624).
9. ODNB, “Thomas Cartwright.”
10. Collinson, Elizabethan Puritan Movement, 101, 103.
11. The Admoni
tion was made to Parliament rather than the queen as head of the Church of England because the archbishops sit, of course, in the House of Lords and all changes in legislation must be approved by them.
12. Collinson, Elizabethan Puritan Movement, 120.
13. Read, Lord Burghley and Queen Elizabeth, p. 116.
14. Collinson, Elizabethan Puritan Movement, 120.
15. Ibid., 121.
16. Neale, Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments, 298.
17. Ibid.
18. An Admonition to Parliament and Certain Articles Collected and Taken by the Bishops, EEBO.
19. BL, Lansdowne, 17, no. 43, f. 97.
20. Read, Lord Burghley and Queen Elizabeth, 110.
21. Ibid., 117.
22. CW, 142–43.
Seventeen: Via Dolorosa
1. Collinson, Elizabethan Puritan Movement, 152.
2. Tanner, Ireland’s Holy Wars, 92.
3. Peter Guilday, The English Catholic Refugees on the Continent, 1558–1795, vol. 1 (London: Longmans, Green, 1914), 7.
4. Thomas Knox, The First and Second Diaries of the English College, Douay, 1868. xxxi.
5. Parker, Dutch Revolt, 166. See also Spanish SP IVdeDJ51/31, royal reply May 31, 1574.
6. Guilday, English Catholic Refugees on the Continent, 69n.
7. Ibid., p. 72.
8. Collinson, Elizabethan Puritan Movement, 160. See also P. Stubbes, Second part of the anatomie of abuses, ed. F. J. Furnivall (London: New Shakespeare Society, 1882) 100–102.
9. Ibid., 161.
10. Ibid., 162.
11. Ibid., 163.
12. A recusant is any person, especially a Roman Catholic, who refused to attend the services of the Church of England until 1791. The Act of Uniformity of 1558 first imposed fines on all nonattenders of a parish church, but Roman Catholics were the specific target of the Act Against Popish Recusants of 1592; subsequent acts through the seventeenth century imposed heavy penalties on Catholic recusants, the exaction of which persisted up to the Second Relief Act of 1791. Recusancy among Catholics was not common until 1570, when the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis excommunicated Elizabeth I.
13. Collinson, Godly People, 376.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid., p. 377.
16. Ibid., p. 388.
17. In 1572 Elizabeth licensed his players as Leicester’s Men, who rapidly became the premier actors and production company of their day.
18. Parker, Grand Strategy of Philip II, 164–65. Also quote from Zuñiga cf. letter to Philip II, August 9, 1576. CSP, Spain, 2.
