History of the Jews

by Paul Johnson

  100. Ibid., 324-5.

  101. E. J. Gumpel produced a statistical survey of these murders and sentences, Vier Jahre politisches Mord (Berlin 1922), quoted in Grunfeld, op. cit.

  102. Mein Kampf (1962 edn), 772.

  103. Walter Laqueur, Russia and Germany: A Century of Conflict (London 1962), 109ff.; Poliakov, op. cit., iv 174.

  104. Robert Wistrich, Hitler’s Apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi Legacy (London 1986), 14-19.

  105. Quoted in Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (rev. edn, New York 1985), i 20-1.

  106. Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie, vii (1934); quoted in Grunfeld, op. cit.

  107. Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair (Berkeley 1961), 291.

  108. Fritz K. Ringer, The Decline of the German Mandarins: The German Academic Community 1890-1933 (Harvard 1969), 446.

  109. George L. Mosse, The Crisis in German Ideology (London 1966), 196.

  110. Michael S. Steinberg, Sabres and Brownshirts: The German Students’ Path to National Socialism, 1918-35 (Chicago 1977), 6-7; P. G. J. Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (New York 1964), 285ff.

  111. Dennis E. Showalter, Little Man, What Now? Der Stürmer in the Weimar Republic (Hamden, Connecticut 1983).

  112. Istvan Deak, Weimar Germany’s Left-wing Intellectuals: A Political History of the Weltbühne and its Circle (Berkeley 1968); Harold L. Poor, Kurt Tucholsky and the Ordeal of Germany 1914-35 (New York 1968).

  113. Quoted in Walter Laqueur, Weimar: A Cultural History 1918-1933 (London 1974), 45.

  114. Mosse, op. cit., 144.

  115. Donald L. Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany (Manchester 1981), has a chapter on this subject, ‘The Jew as German Chauvinist’, 165-77.

  116. Laqueur, Weimar, 72.

  117. Ibid., 75ff.

  118. Mosse, op. cit., 242.

  119. Roger Manvell and Heinrich Fraenkel, The German Cinema (London 1971), 7ff.

  120. Laqueur, op. cit., 234ff.

  121. Gershom Scholem, Walter Benjamin: The Story of a Friendship (London 1982); Jews and Judaism in Crisis (New York 1976), 193.

  122. Richard Wolin, Walter Benjamin: An Aesthetic of Redemption (New York 1982), 40-3.

  123. Walter Benjamin, Illuminations (trans., New York 1969), 255: Wolin, op. cit., 50ff.

  124. Terry Eagleton, Walter Benjamin, or Towards a Revolutionary Criticism (London 1981).

  125. Hilberg, op. cit., i 30ff.

  126. Institut für Zeitgeschichte, Munich; quoted in Wistrich, Hitler’s Apocalypse, 31-2.

  127. Max Domarus (ed.), Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen 1932-45 (Würzburg 1962), i 537.

  128. Hilberg, op. cit., i 39.

  129. Ibid., 46, footnote 1.

  130. Ibid., 69-75.

  131. Ibid., 96-107.

  132. Ibid., 190-1.

  133. Ibid., ii 416; Lucy S. Davidowicz, The War Against the Jews, 1933-45 (London 1975), 141; Martin Gilbert, The Holocaust (New York 1986), 526.

  134. Benjamin Ferencz, Less than Slaves: Jewish Forced Labour and the Quest for Compensation (Harvard 1979), 25.

  135. Hilberg, op. cit., i 254.

  136. Ferencz, op. cit., 28.

  137. Robert H. Abzug, Inside the Vicious Heart: Americans and the Liberation of Nazi Concentration Camps (Oxford 1985), 106.

  138. Ferencz, op. cit., 22.

  139. Ibid., appendix 3, 202ff.; Höss affidavit, 12 March 1947.

  140. Ferencz, op. cit., 19.

  141. Hilberg, op. cit., i 87.

  142. David Irving, Hitler’s War (London 1977).

  143. Gerald Fleming, Hitler and the Final Solution (Berkeley 1984), refutes it.

  144. H. R. Trevor-Roper (ed.), Hitler’s Table Talk 1941-44 (London 1973), 154.

  145. Wistrich, Hitler’s Apocalypse, 37; and see his ch. 6, ‘Hitler and the Final Solution’, 108ff.

  146. Davidowicz, op. cit., 132.

  147. Ibid., 134; Alexander Mitscherlich and Fred Mielke, Doctors of Infamy: The Story of the Nazi Medical Crimes (New York 1949), 114.

  148. Hilberg, op. cit., i 281.

  149. Ibid., 308.

  150. Ibid., 332-3.

  151. The camps were listed by the German government, Bundesgestzblatt, 24 September 1977, pp. 1787-1852; the figure of 900 labour camps was given by Höss.

  152. Hilberg, op. cit., i 56.

  153. Davidowicz, op. cit., 130.

  154. Jochen von Lang, Eichmann Interrogated (New York 1973), 74-5.

  155. Louis P. Lochner (ed.), The Goebbels Diaries 1942-43 (New York 1948).

  156. Figures taken from Davidowicz, op. cit., appendix B, 402f.

  157. The basic evidence for Nazi killings comes from Trials of Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal, 44 vols (Nuremberg 1947), Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, 8 vols plus supplement (Washington DC 1946), and Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, 15 vols (Washington DC).

  158. Luba Krugman Gurdus, The Death Train (New York 1979); Martin Gilbert, Final Journey (London 1979), 70.

  159. Hilberg, op. cit., i 581; Gilbert, Final Journey, 78.

  160. For case histories see Leonard Gross, The Last Jews in Berlin (London 1983).

  161. Ibid.

  162. Austria’s anti-Jewish war-record is summarized in Howard M. Sacher, Diaspora (New York 1985), 30ff.

  163. Hilberg, op. cit., ii 457-8.

  164. Figures from Julius S. Fischer, Transnistria, the Forgotten Cemetery (South Brunswick 1969), 134-7.

  165. Davidowicz, op. cit., 383-6.

  166. Bagatelle pour un massacre (Paris 1937), 126; for Céline see Paul J. Kingston, Anti-Semitism in France during the 1930s (Hull 1983), 131-2.

  167. Jean Laloum, La France Antisémite de Darquier de Pellepoix (Paris 1979).

  168. M. R. Marrus and R. O. Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews (New York 1981), 343.

  169. André Halimi, La Délation sous l’occupation (Paris 1983).

  170. Herzl’s diary, 23 January 1904; Cecil Roth, The History of the Jews of Italy (Philadelphia 1946), 474-5.

  171. Meir Michaelis, Mussolini and the Jews (Oxford 1978), 52.

  172. Ibid., 11ff., 408; Gaetano Salvemini, Prelude to World War II (London 1953), 478.

  173. Michaelis, op. cit., 353-68.

  174. Oral History Collection, The Reminiscences of Walter Lippmann, 248-50; Meryl Secrest, Being Bernard Berenson (New York 1979).

  175. Holocaust statistics vary. I have taken the Hungarian figures from Monty Noam Penkower, The Jews Were Expendable: Free World Diplomacy and the Holocaust (Chicago 1983), 214. See the set of figures, and sources, in Encyclopaedia Judaica, viii 889-90.

  176. F. E. Werbell and Thurston Clarke, Lost Hero: The Mystery of Raoul Wallenberg (New York 1982); Alvar Alsterdal, ‘The Wallenberg Mystery’, Soviet Jewish Affairs, February 1983.

  177. David S. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-5 (New York 1984), 97.

  178. Penkower, op. cit., 193.

  179. Charles Stember (ed.), Jews in the Mind of America (New York 1966), 53-62; Wyman, op. cit., 10-11.

  180. Boston Globe, 26 June 1942; New York Times, 27 June 1942. The Times had an extensive summary of the report on 2 July, however.

  181. Nation, 19 May 1945; Abzug, op. cit., 136-7.

  182. Wyman, op. cit., 313 and footnote.

  183. Ibid., 112ff.

  184. Penkower, op. cit., 193.

  185. Wyman, op. cit., 299.

  186. Hilberg, op. cit., i 358.

  187. Wyman, op. cit., 4-5.

  188. For Betar see Marcus, Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919-38, 271-3; Silver, op. cit., 19ff.

  189. Hilberg, op. cit., i 186-7.

  190. About one-third of it has been published: Lucjan Dobroszynski (ed.), The Chronicle of the Lodz Ghetto, 1941-44 (Yale 1984).

  191. Penkower, op. cit., 292, 337-8, note 10.

  192. Gilbert, The Holocaust
, 426-7.

  193. Davidowicz, op. cit., 301.

  194. Ibid., 289.

  195. Deuteronomy 28:66-7.

  196. Yaffa Eliach (ed.), Hasidic Tales of the Holocaust (Oxford 1983).

  197. Arnold J. Pomerans (trans.), Etty: A Diary, 1941-3 (London 1983).

  198. For Warsaw, see Yisrael Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 1939-43: Ghetto, Underground, Revolt (trans., Brighton 1982); Hilberg, op. cit., ii 511-12.

  199. See ‘Rose Robota, Heroine of the Auschwitz Underground’, in Yuri Suhl (ed.), They Fought Back (New York 1975); Philip Muller, Auschwitz Inferno: The Testimony of a Sonderskommando (London 1979), 143-60.

  200. Ferencz, op. cit., 21.

  201. Ibid., 20.

  202. Gilbert, The Holocaust, 461.

  203. Hilberg, op. cit., ii 438.

  204. Gilbert, The Holocaust, 457.

  205. Abzug, op. cit., 106.

  206. Gilbert, The Holocaust, 419.

  207. Ibid., 808, 793.

  208. International Military Tribunal Nuremberg, Document NG-2757, quoted in Gilbert, The Holocaust, 578.

  209. Abzug, op. cit., 152ff.

  210. Ibid., 160.

  211. Gilbert, The Holocaust, 816ff.

  212. For statistics of war trials, see Encyclopaedia Judaica, xvi 288-302.

  213. For a useful summary, see Howard Sachar, op. cit., 7-13.

  214. Quoted in Ferencz, op. cit., Introduction, xi.

  215. Ibid., 189.

  216. The Council debates are summarized in Bea’s own book, The Church and the Jewish People (London 1966), which gives the text of the Declaration in appendix I, 147-53.

  PART SEVEN: ZION

  1. Amos 3:2.

  2. Arthur A. Cohen, The Natural and Supernatural Jew (London 1967), 180-2.

  3. Robert Wistrich, Hitler’s Apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi Legacy (London 1986), 162ff.

  4. Quoted in H. H. Ben Sasson (ed.), A History of the Jewish People (trans., Harvard 1976), 1040.

  5. Churchill to Sir Edward Grigg, 12 July 1944; Monty Noam Penkower, The Jews Were Expendable: Free World Diplomacy and the Holocaust (Chicago 1983), ch. 1, ‘The Struggle for an Allied Jewish Fighting Force’, 3ff.

  6. Evelyn Waugh, The Holy Places (London 1952), 2.

  7. Eric Silver, Begin (London 1984), 8.

  8. Menachem Begin, White Nights (New York 1977).

  9. Michael Bar-Zohar, Ben Gurion: A Biography (London 1978), 129.

  10. Thurston Clarke, By Blood and Fire (London 1981), 116.

  11. Silver, op. cit., 67-72.

  12. Nicholas Bethell, The Palestine Triangle: The Struggle Between the British, the Jews and the Arabs (London 1979), 261ff.

  13. Michael J. Cohen, Palestine and the Great Powers (Princeton 1982), 270-6, for the British decision to withdraw.

  14. Alfred Steinberg, The Man from Missouri: The Life and Times of Harry S. Truman (New York 1952), 301.

  15. The Forrestal Diaries (New York 1951), 324, 344, 348.

  16. Petroleum Times, June 1948.

  17. Leonard Schapiro, ‘The Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee…’, in B. Vago and G. L. Mosse (eds), Jews and Non-Jews in Eastern Europe (New York 1974), 291ff.

  18. Howard Sachar, ‘The Arab-Israel Issue in the Light of the Cold War’, Sino-Soviet Institute Studies (Washington DC), 1966, 2.

  19. Howard Sachar, Europe Leaves the Middle East 1936-54 (London 1974), 546-7; Netanel Lorch, The Edge of the Sword: Israel’s War of Independence 1947-9 (New York 1961), 90; David Horowitz, The State in the Making (New York 1953), 27.

  20. Rony E. Gabbay, A Political Study of the Arab-Jewish Conflict (Geneva 1959), 92-3.

  21. Edward Luttwak and Dan Horowitz, The Israeli Army (New York 1975), 23ff.

  22. For the course of the fighting see Edgar O’Ballance, The Arab-Israeli War 1948 (London 1956).

  23. Jabotinsky Archives; quoted in Silver, op. cit., 90.

  24. For an account of the Deir Yassin affair, see ibid., 88-95.

  25. See maps and figures on the provenance and distribution of Arab and Jewish refugees in Martin Gilbert, The Arab-Israel Conflict: Its History in Maps (London 1974), 49, 50.

  26. Cairo Radio, 19 July 1957.

  27. Genesis 15:1-6; 12:1-3.

  28. Gilbert, op. cit., 11, for map of 1919 proposal. See also maps in Encyclopaedia Judaica, ix 315-16.

  29. Gilbert, op. cit., 24, for map of Peel proposal.

  30. Quoted in W. D. Davies, The Territorial Dimension in Judaism (Berkeley 1982), 114-15; see also Ben Halpern, The Idea of the Jewish State (2nd edn, Harvard 1969), 41ff.

  31. For the Sinai War see Chaim Herzog, The Arab-Israeli Wars (London 1982).

  32. For the Six Day War see Terence Prittie, Israel: Miracle in the Desert (2nd edn, London 1968).

  33. For the Yom Kippur War see Herzog, op. cit.

  34. For the Israel-Egypt peace negotiations see two eye-witness accounts, Moshe Dayan, Breakthrough (London 1981); Ezer Weizman, The Battle for Peace (New York 1981).

  35. Quoted in S. Clement Leslie, The Rift in Israel: Religious Authority and Secular Democracy (London 1971), 63ff.

  36. Amos Perlmutter, Israel: the Partitioned State: A Political History since 1900 (New York 1985), ch. 7; R. J. Isaacs, Israel Divided: Ideological Politics in the Jewish State (Baltimore 1976), 66ff.

  37. Text of the Law of Return (as amended 1954, 1970) is given in Philip S. Alexander, Textual Sources for the Study of Judaism (Manchester 1984), 166-7.

  38. For this ruling see ibid., 168-71.

  39. For immigrants from Europe see map in Gilbert, op. cit., 51; detailed immigration figures up to 1970 are in Encyclopaedia Judaica, ix, 534-46.

  40. B. C. Kaganoff, A Dictionary of Jewish Names and their History (London 1977).

  41. Bar-Zohar, op. cit., 171-2.

  42. Silver, op. cit., 99-108.

  43. Dan Horowitz and Moshe Lissak, Origins of the Israeli Polity: Palestine Under the Mandate (Chicago 1978).

  44. Emile Marmorstein, Heaven at Bay: The Jewish Kulturkampf in the Holy Land (Oxford 1969), 142-3.

  45. For Ben Gurion’s struggles see Perlmutter, op. cit., 15-17, 131-5.

  46. Quoted in ibid., 145.

  47. Speech in the Knesset, 20 June 1977.

  48. ‘With Gershom Scholem: An Interview’, in W. J. Dannhauser (ed.), Gershom Scholem: Jews and Judaism in Crisis (New York 1976).

  49. Marmorstein, op. cit., 80-9.

  50. Ibid., 108ff.

  51. I. Domb, Transformations (London 1958).

  52. Solomon Granzfried, Kissor Shulan ’Arukh, ch. 72, paras 1-2.

  53. Leslie, op. cit., 52ff.

  54. Z. E. Kurzweil, Modern Trends in Jewish Education (London 1964), 257ff.

  55. Quoted in Marmorstein, op. cit., 144.

  56. Case quoted in Chaim Bermant, On the Other Hand (London 1982), 55.

  57. Quoted in ibid., 56.

  58. Quoted in Leslie, op. cit., 62.

  59. Numbers 5:2-3.

  60. Numbers 19:17-18.

  61. N. H. Snaith, Leviticus and Numbers (London 1967), 270-4.

  62. Immanuel Jacobovits, The Timely and the Timeless (London 1977), 291.

  63. I Chronicles 28:19.

  64. For the arguments, see Jacobovits, op. cit., 292-4.

  65. Encyclopaedia Judaica, XV 994.

  66. Such as Richard Harwood, Did Six Million Really Die? (New York 1974) and Arthur Butz, The Hoax of the Twentieth Century (New York 1977).

  67. For the charges see Moshe Pearlman, The Capture and Trial of Adolf Eichmann (London 1963), appendix 633-43.

  68. Ibid., 85.

  69. Ibid., 627.

  70. Hanoch Smith, ‘Israeli Reflections on the Holocaust’, Public Opinion (December-January 1984).

  71. Quoted in John C. Merkle, The Genesis of Faith: The Depth Theology of Abraham Joshua Herschel (New York 1985), 11.

  72. Cohen, op. cit., 6-7.

  73. See the useful map, ‘World Jewish Population 1984’, in Howard Sachar, Diaspora (New York 198
5), 485-6.

  74. H. S. Kehimkan, History of the Bene Israel of India (Tel Aviv 1937).

  75. For Indian Jews see Schifra Strizower, The Children of Israel: The Bene Israel of Bombay (Oxford 1971) and Exotic Jewish Communities (London 1962).

  76. Quoted in Encyclopaedia Judaica, ix 1138-9.

  77. P. Lévy, Les Noms des Israélites en France (Paris 1960), 75-6.

  78. Quoted in P. Girard, Les Juifs de France de 1789 à 1860 (Paris 1976), 172.

  79. Domenique Schnapper, Jewish Institutions in France (trans., Chicago 1982), 167, note 22.

  80. Irving Kristol, ‘The Political Dilemma of America Jews’, Commentary (July 1984); Milton Himmelfarb, ‘Another Look at the Jewish Vote’, Commentary (December 1985).

  81. Quoted in Bernard D. Weinryb, ‘Anti-Semitism in Soviet Russia’, in Lionel Kochan (ed.), The Jews in Soviet Russia (Oxford 1972), 308; for Stalin’s anti-Semitism, see Svetlana Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters to a Friend (trans., London 1967), 76, 82, 171, 193, 206, 217.

  82. Quoted in Weinryb, op. cit., 307.

  83. See Peter Brod, ‘Soviet-Israeli Relations 1948-56’, and Arnold Krammer, ‘Prisoners in Prague: Israelis in the Slansky Trial’, in Robert Wistrich (ed.), The Left Against Zion: Communism, Israel and the Middle East (London 1979), 57ff., 72ff.

  84. See Benjamin Pinkus, ‘Soviet Campaigns against Jewish Nationalism and Cosmopolitanism’, Soviet Jewish Affairs iv 2 (1974); Leonard Schapiro, ‘The Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee and Phases of Soviet Anti-Semitic Policy during and after World War II’, in B. Gao and G. L. Mosse (eds), Jews and Non-Jews in Eastern Europe (New York 1974), 291ff.; Wistrich, Hitler’s Apocalypse, ch. 10, ‘The Soviet Protocols’, 194ff.

  85. Joseph B. Schechtman, Star in Eclipse: Russian Jewry Revisited (New York 1961), 80.

  86. W. D. Rubinstein, The Left, the Right and the Jews (London 1982), ‘The Soviet Union’, 180-99, gives numerous statistics.

  87. Philippa Lewis, ‘The Jewish Question in the Open, 1968-71’, in Kochan, op. cit., 337-53; Ilya Zilberberg, ‘From Russia to Israel: A Personal Case-History’, Soviet Jewish Affairs (May 1972).

  88. ‘A Short Guide to the Exit Visa’, issued by the National Council for Soviet Jewry, London, 1986.

  89. D. M. Schreuder, The Scramble for Southern Africa, 1877-1895 (Oxford 1980), 181ff.; Freda Troup, South Africa: An Historical Introduction (London 1972), 153ff.

  90. For the Jewish pioneers see Geoffrey Wheatcroft, The Randlords: The Men Who Made South Africa (London 1985), 51ff., 202ff. For the second generation see Theodore Gregory, Ernest Oppenheimer and the Economic Development of Southern Africa (New York 1977).