Vikings

by Neil Oliver

  Vikings began life as a BBC television project and so I am also indebted to the team that slaved away to give it life. Huge thanks therefore to series producer Cameron Balbirnie, whose commitment to the job in hand is always humbling. Executive producer Eamon Hardy was also a champion of the cause. Directors Jon Eastman, Rosie Schellenberg and Simon Winchcombe led the journeys and adventures, each in their own unique and revealing way. It’s one thing to read about Vikings — quite another to spend time following in their footsteps. Hopefully this book conveys at least some of the wonder and excitement I felt during visits to locations as diverse and unforgettable as Reykjavik, Birka and Istanbul.

  When the going gets tough, both on and between locations, it’s so often the humour of the crews that gets everyone else through. Deep gratitude then to cameramen Patrick Acum, Neville Kidd, Toby Wilkinson, Jamie Cairney and Nik Porter, as well as to soundmen Edward Capes and Mike Williams. Researchers Eirin O Høgetveit, Ivan Lazic (both of whom also showed real potential as sound recordists, incidentally!) and Tom Watkinson were endlessly helpful and their careful work underpins much of what is contained in the pages that follow. The editors who each brought skill and dedication to the job of assembling and finessing the three episodes of the series were Martin Johnson, Matt White and Ben Harrison — so my thanks and appreciation are owed to all.

  None of us would have got anywhere or done anything useful without the tireless efforts of production co-ordinators Dominic Bolton, Poppy Corbett and Gezz Mounter — so huge thanks to them too. Love as always to my agents — Eugenie Furniss at Furniss-Lawton and Sophie Laurimore at Factual Management.

  But my greatest debt is owed to my wife Trudi, and to our children, Evie, Archie and Teddy. My work takes me away from home more than I would like, and their tolerance of both my absences, and then of my deadline-inspired distraction while I am actually in the house, makes it all possible. I cannot thank them enough.

  INDEX

  Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), 8, 76, 84

  Aase, Queen, 104, 181

  Abbasid Caliphate, 130–1

  Aberlemno Stone, the, 79

  Achilles, 61–2

  Adam of Bremen, 63, 90–1, 206, 230

  Aelfheah, Archbishop, 245–6

  Aethelbald, King of Mercia, 173

  Aethelred, King of Northumbria, 84–5, 97

  Aethelred the Unready, King of

  England, 240–6, 251

  Aethelstan, King, 194–6, 197–8

  Aethelweard, 196

  afterlife, the, 89, 93, 114, 175

  Aggersborg, 235

  Aidan, St, 8, 111–12

  Alamanni, the, 67

  Alcuin of York, 8, 76, 84–5, 97, 115

  Alfred Jewel, the, 171, 172

  Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, 12, 63, 171, 177–8, 194

  Angles, 66–7, 78, 79

  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, xvii, 8, 116, 116–17, 168, 170, 172, 176, 178, 195, 196, 237, 241

  Anglo-Saxon ‘Heptarchy’, the, 168

  Anglo-Saxons, 78, 80, 171, 221

  Annals of Fulda, 154

  Annals of St Bertin, 147, 168

  Annals of the Four Masters, The, 154

  Annals of Ulster, 148, 192–3

  Ansarve, 81–2

  Ansgar, Apostle of the North, 226, 233

  Antoninus Pius, Emperor, 66

  Ardnamurchan boat burial, 2–3, 188

  Ari Thorgilsson, 201, 202

  Arklow, 162

  Arminius, 58–9

  Asgard, 203

  Ashingdon, Battle of, 246–7

  Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 170–2, 239

  Assandun, Battle of, 246–7

  Athelney, 177

  Atlantic, Battle of, 200

  Augustine, 78

  Augustus, Emperor, 57, 58

  Baghdad, 124, 132

  Baltic Sea, 118–19

  Balts, 132

  Bamburgh, 114

  Barbary pirates, 159

  Barrow River, 152, 153

  Barrowman, Rachel, 185–6

  Basil II, Emperor, 132–3

  Bede, the Venerable, 77–8, 112, 114

  Beloozero, 130

  Beorhtric, King of Wessex, 116–17

  Beowulf, 92–3

  Bergman, Ingmar, 82

  Bernicia, 79, 168

  Betjeman, John, 173

  Biddle, Martin and Birthe, 174–6

  Birka, 141–5, 226

  Birka Girl, 143–5, 252–3

  Bjældskovdal, 49

  Bjarni Herjólfsson, 216

  Björkö, 141

  Björn ‘Ironside’ Jarnsida, 147–8

  Black Sea, 124

  Bloody Bay, Battle of, 190

  boat burials, 2–3, 68, 78, 92–3, 104–5, 189

  Bodmer, Sir Walter, 187

  bog-bodies, 49–52

  Bogren, Bror, 82

  Bohuslan, 39

  Borgeby, 235

  Borremose bog, 51

  Borremose Woman, 51

  Borum Eshøj

  burial mounds, 47–8

  reconstructed house, 45–8

  Borurn Eshøj family, 32–3, 47

  Bosphorous, the, 124

  Boyne River, 152

  Bradley, Richard, 35–6

  Bredaror cairn, 36–7

  Brendan, St, 201, 212

  Britain

  Bronze Age, 40

  Christianity in, 78

  human sacrifice, 51

  peoples, 79

  Roman, 66, 77–8

  separation from Europe, 9–10

  British Crown Jewels, 249

  British Museum, 239

  bronze

  importance of, 37–9

  iron’s advantages over, 43–4

  loss of confidence in, 39–42

  monopoly on, 33

  source of, 30

  Bronze Age, 25–6, 28–42, 48

  burials, 28–9, 31–3, 39

  Late, 39–42, 44

  lurs, 33–4

  power and status in, 37–9

  reconstructed house, 45–8

  religion, 34–5

  rock art, 83

  settlements, 29

  Shetland Islands, 183

  ships 26, 34–7

  trade, 30, 41

  voyages, 36–7

  warriors, 38–9

  Bruce, William Speirs, xix

  Brudevælte Lurs, 34

  Brunanburh, battle of, 196, 197–8

  Brussels Chronicle, The, 134

  Bulghars, the, 109

  Burgred, King of Mercia, 173–4

  burial practices, 24–5

  burials

  Birka, 142

  boat, 68, 78, 92–3, 104–5, 189

  Bronze Age, 28–9, 31–3, 39

  Christian, 231–3

  Ireland, 156

  Jelling, 226–9

  pagan, 232

  Plakun, 121–2

  Repton, 174–6

  Roman period, 68

  St Ninian’s Isle, 185

  Byock, Jesse, 205–6

  Byrhtnoth, 241

  Byzantine Empire, 67, 70–1, 72, 73–5, 80, 132–3, 138, 159, 248

  Caelius, Marcus, 59

  Caesar, Julius, 57, 58

  Caithness, 188–9

  Cambridge, 177

  Canna, xv

  Canterbury, 245–6

  Carolingians, the, 75–7

  Carpathian Basin, 40–1

  Carrick hoard, the, 162

  Caspian Sea, 124

  Castledermot, battle of, 156

  Celts, the, 65–6

  Cenel mac Gabhrain, 192–3

  Ceolwulf, King of Mercia, 173

  Cerball, King of Osraige, 156

  Charlemagne, 75–7, 80, 95, 115–16, 145, 146–7, 166, 167, 220

  Charles Martel, King of the Franks, 75, 95

  Charles the Bald, 147, 148

  Charles the Simple, King of France, 148

  Chippenham, 177

  Christian I, King of Denmark and Norway, 1
89

  Christianity, 131–2

  benefits of, 220–1, 224–5, 233–4

  in Britain, 78

  Celtic, 111–12, 150–1

  communion, 91–2

  conversion of Iceland, 231

  conversion of the Danes, 224–34

  conversion of the Rus, 223–4

  Coptic, 95

  emergence of, 70

  first converts, 133

  hermits, 198–9

  impact, 223

  Olaf Tryggvasson’s conversion to, 242

  retrospective conversions, 227–8

  in Scotland, 79

  spread of, 72, 211, 219–21

  survival in Europe, 75, 80

  Viking resistance to, 8

  Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, 196

  Cimbri, the, 57

  Cimmerians, 41

  Clark, Kenneth, 2, 71–2

  Classical world, 54

  climate, 14–15, 44, 48, 67, 214

  Clonycavan Man, 51

  clothing, 108–11

  Clovis, King of the Franks, 75

  Cnut the Great, 4, 222–3, 246–50, 251

  Codex Regius, the, 210

  Cogadh Gaedhel re Gallaibh, 160

  coins, xvii–xviii, 121–2, 142, 175, 238–9, 248

  Columba, St, 78, 111, 150–1

  Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor, 248–9

  Constantine, Emperor, 70–1, 78

  Constantine, King of Scots, 194, 195, 196

  Constantinople, 70–1, 72, 74–5, 80, 132–3

  Hagia Sophia, 1, 72, 133, 137–8

  raids on, 134–7

  renamed Istanbul, 137

  Copenhagen, 31–3, 51, 55

  Cork, 155, 162

  cosmology, 203

  Coutts, Douglas, 187–8

  cremations, 89, 93

  Cromwell, Oliver, 249, 250

  Cuerdale silver hoard, 239

  Cumberland, 243

  Cunliffe, Sir Barry, 37

  Cuthbert, St, 112, 113, 115

  Cyprus, 30

  Dál Riata, 79

  Damascus, 130

  Danegeld, 240–1, 241–2, 243

  Danelaw, the, 177–9, 194, 237–8

  Danes, 131, 145–6, 166–7, 194, 220, 224–34, 236, 241

  Danevirke, the, 95–6, 145, 225

  Danish islands, 18

  Danube River, 40

  Deira, 79, 168

  Denmark, 55–6

  Christian missionaries to, 225–6, 233

  conversion to Christianity, 224–34

  definition of kingdom, 95–6

  grave goods, 25

  kings, 96

  Mesolithic colonisation of, 11

  Mesolithic landscape, 17

  Mesolithic population, 22

  Roman circumnavigation of, 57

  Roman trade, 67–9

  unification, 145–6

  Dicuil, 199, 201

  Diocletian, Emperor, 67

  DNA, 4, 104, 187

  Dnestr, River, 124

  Dniepr, River, 124, 130

  Dogger Bank, 10

  Doggerland, 10

  Dorestad, 146

  Dorset, mass burial, 3

  Dorset raid, 116–17

  dragon ships, 97, 99–100, 105–6

  Dublin, 117, 149, 155–9, 160, 162–3, 197, 239

  Dublin skeletons, the, 156–8

  Dudo, 147–8

  Dunrally Fort; 152–4

  Dupuytren’s Contracture, 4

  Durham, 113

  Dyle River, 154

  Eadfrith, Bishop, 113

  Eadric Streona, 246–7

  Ealhswith of Mercia, 194

  Eamont Bridge, 194–5

  East Anglia, 168, 169, 194, 247

  Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Bede), 114

  Ecgfrith, King, 79

  Edgar the Aetheling, 252

  Edgar the Peaceful, King of England, 237, 238, 240, 248

  Edington, Battle of, 177

  Edmund Ironside, 246–7

  Edward, King of Wessex, 194

  Edward the Confessor, 247, 251

  Edward the Martyr, King of England, 240

  Egil Skallagrimsson, 197–8

  Egil’s saga, 197–8

  Egtved Girl, 28–9, 31

  Einhard, Vita Karoli Magni, The Life of Charles the Great, 76

  Eirik, Earl, 242–3

  Eirik Bloodaxe, 237

  Eirik the Red, 4, 103, 213–14, 215–16, 219, 220

  Eirikur Thorvaldsson, 211–12, 213

  Elbing, 119

  Elder Edda, the, 209–11

  Elling Woman, 50

  Encomium Emmae Reginae, 101–2

  England

  the Anglo-Saxon ‘Heptarchy’, 168

  foundation of kingdom, 194–5

  kings, 237

  last Viking King, 237

  English Civil War, 250

  English language, loan words, 179

  Epaves Bay, 218

  Erteølle culture, 16–17

  Essex, 168, 194

  Etruscans, 53–4

  Eyjafjallajokull volcano, 203

  Falys, Ceri, 244–5

  Fårö, 81, 82–4

  Faroe Islands, 198–200

  Fergus Mor mac Eirc, 79

  Finnian of Clonard, St, 198

  Flateyjarbók, 199

  Floki Vilgertharson, 201

  Forannan, Abbot, 160

  Forte, Angelo, 57–8, 59–60

  fortifications, 93–4, 152–4, 174, 235

  Fosna, the, 22

  Fossati, Gaspare and Guiseppe, 138

  France, 41, 75

  Frankish Annals, The, 145

  Franks, the, 75–7, 145, 146–7, 148

  Fyris, River, 92

  Fyrkat, 235

  Gaels, the, 79

  Gainsborough, 246

  Gallowglasses, 190

  Gamla Uppsala, 86–92

  burial mounds, 88–90

  human sacrifice, 90–2

  museum, 90

  Plateaux of the Royal Demesne, 87–8

  royal palace, 87

  temple, 90–2

  Garthar Svavarsson, 201

  Germanic barbarians, 66

  Germany, 51

  Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesia Pontificum (Adam of Bremen), 63, 90–1

  Gibbon, Edward, 71

  Glasha River, 152, 153

  Godfred, King of Denmark, 96, 145, 146

  gods, 48–52, 90–1, 203, 210–11

  Gokstad Ship, the, 105

  Gorm the Old, 222–3, 225, 226–9, 234

  Gorodisce, 139

  Goths, 67

  Gotland, 18, 35–6, 81–2, 126–9, 130–1

  Grauballe Man, 50

  grave goods, 25, 31–2, 60, 61–2, 68, 89–90, 93, 104–5, 142, 157–8 174–5, 233

  Greath Heathen Army, the

  attack on Northumbria, 169–70, 176–7

  attack on Wessex, 177–8

  burials, 174–6

  first appearance, 169

  landing site, 172

  in Mercia, 172–7

  motivation, 170–1

  in Repton, 173–7

  settlement in Northumbria, 177

  splitting of the force, 174, 176–7

  strength, 169, 170

  Greek civilisation, 53, 54, 62

  Greenland

  abandonment, 218

  conversion to Christianity, 219–20

  discovery of, 212–13

  landscape, 213

  natural resources, 214–15

  settlement of, 213–14, 215–16

  Grentoft, 44

  Grey Goose law, 206

  Grimur Kamban, 199–200

  Grobin, 119

  Gronbjerg, 44

  Gudme, 68–9, 86

  Guldhoj man, 31–2

  Gunnbjorn Ulfsson, 212

  Gunnhild, 244

  Guthrum, 177–8

  Haakon IV, King of Norway, 191, 242

  Hadrian, Emperor, 66r />
  Hadrian’s Wall, 66, 77

  Haervejen, the, 234

  hákarl, 208–9

  Halfdan (Greath Heathen Army chieftain), 176–7

  Halfdan the Black, 104

  Hallström, Gustaf, 36

  Halogaland, 242

  Harald II, King of Denmark, 246, 247

  Harald Bluetooth, 27–8, 222–3, 240, 241, 242

  conversion to Christianity, 225–34

  death, 236

  grand projects, 234–6

  Harald Fairhair, 105, 181–2, 189, 198, 237

  Harald Sigurdarsson (Hardrada), 251

  Harold, King of Denmark, 154

  Harold Godwinson, 251–2

  Harthacnut, King of England, 247, 250–1

  Harun al-Rashid, 77

  Hassle hoard, the, 31

  Hastein, 147–8

  Hastings, Battle of, 252

  Hávamál, the, 210–11

  Heaney, Seamus, 50

  Hebrides, the, 189–91

  Hedeby, 141

  Heimskringla, 86

  Hekla, Mount, 204

  Helgö, 141

  Helgö treasure, the, 94–5

  Helluland, 216

  Henry the Fowler, Emperor, 222

  Heraclius, Emperor, 73

  heritage, 1–7

  Hermitage, St Petersburg, 122–4, 140

  Herning, 42–3

  Hildebrand, Bror Emil, 88–9

  Himlingoje, 68–9

  Historia Normannorum (Dudo), 147–8

  Historia Norwegie, 181–2, 187, 200–1

  Historia Regum Anglorum, 96–7

  History of the Wars (Procopius of Caesarea), 13–14

  Hjortspring Boat, 52–3, 98

  Hjortspring Hoard, 52–3

  Hoby Chieftain’s Grave, 61–2

  Hodde, 45

  Holy Roman Empire, 77, 248–9

  Homer, Iliad, 61–2

  Horoaland, 117, 149

  Huldremose Woman, 51

  human sacrifice, 48–52, 90–2

  Husby, 93

  Ibn Fadlan, 109–11, 126–9, 139

  Ibn Rustah, Ahmad, 125–6

  Ice Age, 9–11, 14

  Iceland

  the Althing, 205–7

  conversion to Christianity, 231

  culture, 204–5

  diet, 207–9

  first visitors, 200–2

  independence, 206

  landowners, 205

  landscape, 202–3

  location, 207

  population, 205

  settlement of, 201–2, 204

  Stong farmstead, 203–4

  the Thingveuir, 206–7

  volcanoes, 202–4

  Icelandic sagas, 64, 119–20, 182

  Ilmen, Lake, 139

  Imperial Crown, Holy Roman Empire, 248–9

  Ingolfr Arnarson, 201, 202

  Ingstad, Helge and Anne, 217–18

  Inisbofin, 148

  Inismurray, 148

  Iona, 8, 78, 111

  Ireland

  Christianity in 150–1, 220

  dynastic struggles, 151