Napoleon's Poisoned Chalice

by Dr Martin Howard

  Stokoe left Longwood at around 2pm and went straight to The Briars to seek Plampin’s opinion on the document he had agreed to subject to his sanction. It is unclear exactly what was said at this meeting but the Admiral appears to have had no immediate objection to the articles and he did not criticise Stokoe’s conduct. He probably viewed the surgeon’s acts as reasonable under the difficult circumstances. If so, he was quickly to change his mind. Lowe had read the copy of the articles forwarded to him by Nicholls and he at once wrote to the Admiral. After complaining that Stokoe had not reported to him, he wished to know why the surgeon had given ‘his assent to proposals of such a nature as those enclosed’. This had been done, according to Lowe, ‘without any previous reference to or consultation with either your Excellency or me’. The Governor was always searching for an ‘intrigue’ but here he went a step further and distorted the facts to create one. Firstly it was correct for Stokoe to report to the Admiral, his rightful superior; later, the Governor contradicted himself by insisting that the naval surgeon was Plampin’s responsibility. Secondly, he entirely ignored the conditional nature of Stokoe’s acceptance, a proviso which had actually been inserted into one of the articles. With the Governor behaving in this manner, it was obvious that Stokoe’s ‘distress of mind’ was fully justified.11

  During the evening, the state of the Emperor’s health gave continued cause for concern and Montholon decided to visit Plantation House to discuss the medical arrangements directly with Lowe. He set off in the dark in pouring rain accompanied by Nicholls and two men carrying lanterns. The Count opened the discussion by voicing his concern that Napoleon would have another attack in the night, that he dreaded ‘un coup d’apoplexe’ or a rush of blood to the head, ‘comme d’un coup de piston’. He entreated the Governor to allow Stokoe, the only medical man acceptable to the patient, to remain at Longwood until a decision was made regarding his definitive appointment. Lowe agreed but then said that the surgeon was under the Admiral’s jurisdiction and that he could not dispose of his services. Montholon, taken aback by Lowe’s sudden lack of authority, questioned this but Lowe stood firm, insisting that he would have to confer with Plampin who was ‘entirely independent of him’. He added that Stokoe would be at Longwood next morning, or at least his decision would be known by this time. The Governor was playing for time, probably trying to guess the severity of his prisoner’s illness, unable to decide whether the urgent call for Stokoe was genuine or a charade. On the evening of the 17th, Lowe commented to Verling that ‘it was by no means settled that Mr Stokoe should be allowed to accept the situation, that at all events many points remained to be discussed.’ On their part, the French were determined to maintain the pressure on the Governor and a letter followed. This was in Montholon’s handwriting but the Count confirms that it was dictated by Napoleon. It described the seriousness of his symptoms, the necessity for Stokoe’s attendance, the delay in him arriving at Longwood, and the refusal to see Verling. Lowe was reminded that

  Even on the verge of death, the Emperor will receive care and medicines only from the hands of his own doctor; if he is deprived of him, he will receive no one and will consider himself to have been assassinated by you.

  The letter was unhelpful to Stokoe as it simply stated that he had accepted the proposals presented to him.12

  Before Montholon’s return to Longwood, Napoleon was again seized by an attack of pain and, at 9pm, Bertrand sent a further urgent message to the Governor demanding Stokoe’s help. Lowe has been accused of deliberately delaying the delivery of this note to the surgeon. Nicholls confirms that he met a dragoon carrying it later that evening, presumably heading from Plantation House. When Stokoe finally arrived back at Longwood at 5.30am on Monday 18th, Bertrand says that the doctor was under strict orders from Plampin to discuss only medical matters. If so, this was a detailed resumé of the symptoms as the surgeon spent eleven hours with the French, much of the time in the company of the Grand Marshal. The second consultation with Napoleon lasted about an hour and took place just before Stokoe’s departure at 4.30pm. The Emperor was reluctant to accept any treatment from the British surgeon until the Governor had consented to the conditions for his employment. Lowe was in no hurry to make a decision and had actually instructed Nicholls to return the documents to Bertrand. The officer dutifully did this only to find that the Frenchman had placed the papers back on his desk, commenting that it would be safer if he kept them. Life on St. Helena was as difficult for the Orderly Officers as it was for the doctors.

  Stokoe wrote a second bulletin which, while being a frank medical opinion, only served to drag him deeper into the mire. He repeated his view that his patient had hepatitis and, although he believed him to be in no immediate danger, he added that the disease was worsening, that a prolonged stay in such a climate would surely shorten his life, and that a recurrence of the acute symptoms would require prompt medical attention. In response to this bulletin, Lowe requested Verling to return to Longwood without delay and to inform Montholon of his presence. We can only guess at Lowe’s real thoughts, but Stokoe’s blunt opinions must have irritated him as they forced him into a corner. He now had responsibility for a prisoner who had a serious illness caused in his opinion by the unhealthy climate, whose life would be shortened by long-term captivity and who required constant medical attention. French historians such as Masson agree that, in the eyes of the Governor, Stokoe’s greatest crime was his diagnosis of hepatitis. Arnold Chaplin concurs that the surgeon’s two unpardonable faults were to think that his patient had hepatitis and to believe that he was really ill. Such a lack of tact could not be endured.13

  Just as after his previous consultation with Napoleon, Stokoe called on Plampin to give an account of his visit. The surgeon quickly sensed a change in the atmosphere.

  On being shown into the office where the Admiral was seated at his desk, I observed the secretary [Elliot] sitting in the middle of the room totally unemployed; the novelty of his presence at this time and under these circumstances struck me forcibly, and I realised that he was there as a witness. It was natural that I should feel hurt at this treatment from an officer who I had hitherto looked up to as my patron and friend.

  Plampin interrogated Stokoe as to the circumstances of his most recent visit to Longwood and the conversations he had had with the French. He made some notes regarding the surgeon’s account of Napoleon’s health and closed the interview by asking that the doctor not attend Longwood again without a pass. This implied that the doctor had originally attended Napoleon of his own volition whereas, in reality, he had responded to an order from the Admiral himself. Lowe and Plampin still had to make some response to the proposed employment of Stokoe as the Emperor’s surgeon and, on Monday evening, Major Gorrequer wrote to Captain Nicholls.

  St. Helena

  Jan 18, 1819

  Sir,

  In reference to the verbal communication which Count Bertrand made to you yesterday, I am directed by the Governor to acquaint you, that having conferred with Rear-Admiral Plampin, in respect to the continuance of Mr Stokoe’s medical attendance at Longwood, the Admiral has acquainted him, that he cannot dispense with Mr Stokoe’s services in the squadron, so far as to admit of him being entirely excused from it; nor could he release Mr Stokoe from the obedience due to him, as Naval Commander-in-Chief, without the sanction of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty.

  The Governor himself will have no objection to Mr Stokoe affording his medical assistance to Napoleon Bonaparte, whenever so required; but he is desirous, in such cases, that Mr Stokoe’s professional visits should be made in conjunction with the physician, who is at present in attendance at Longwood, following so near as possible, the instructions on this head.

  This decision was made known to the French and it left Stokoe in limbo. The articles were not acceptable and he was not to be the Emperor’s physician as O’Meara had been, but he was still to visit Napoleon as a doctor. He would almost certainly be unaccompanied as Napoleon
was determined not to see Verling, a fact well known to the Governor and Admiral.14

  On the next day, Tuesday 19th, Stokoe was again requested by Bertrand and he called at The Briars for the necessary pass. Plampin had just had a meeting with Lowe and he had been primed to subject the doctor to a thorough cross examination.

  ‘When you signed your acquiescence to the proposal you gave me a copy of, did Count Bertrand or General Bonaparte demand any pledge from you that you would not repeat anything that passed in conversation, and did you give any such pledge?’

  ‘I was not asked to pledge myself to anything of the kind.’

  ‘Were you required to write out a bulletin?’

  ‘Yes, by Count Bertrand, which I did, and the one you have is a copy of it.’

  ’Was the latter part of the bulletin put down at the suggestion of either General Bonaparte or Count Bertrand?’

  The last question referred to Stokoe’s comment that it was necessary to have a physician in constant attendance at Longwood in case the severe symptoms recurred. He indignantly replied that it was his own idea. Plampin now quizzed the surgeon as to why he had made a diagnosis of hepatitis and particularly asked a number of leading questions regarding the symptoms and how he knew of them.

  This was ridiculous as Plampin had neither any contact with Napoleon nor any medical training and was in no position to question the doctor’s opinion. Stokoe freely admitted that he had reached his conclusions based not only upon his immediate enquiries to Napoleon and a physical examination, but also on information provided by Bertrand, Montholon and a servant.

  When Plampin, returning to the bulletin, wished to know why Stokoe had stressed the need for a permanent medical presence at Longwood when Verling was in residence, the doctor gave the obvious reply that Napoleon had refused to see his colleague. By now, the Admiral was becoming frustrated at his inability to fluster Stokoe and he resorted to questioning the surgeon’s designation of his patient. Napoleon’s proper title was a subject which greatly exercised the British authorities on St. Helena.

  ‘Was the name of the patient omitted in the bulletin you left at Longwood at the suggestion of Count Bertrand, or your own act alone, and why did you omit the name of General Bonaparte?’

  ‘I asked Count Bertrand what I should say with respect to the name, when he answered, ‘Napoleon’ or ‘the patient’, which was the reason of my not putting down ‘General Bonaparte’. I understood this was the proper way of beginning a bulletin.’

  ‘I should have called him General Bonaparte and not the patient. Earl Bathurst to Sir Hudson Lowe calls him General Bonaparte. Lord Melville to me always calls him General Bonaparte, therefore on all occasions I call him so, and I think the surgeon of the Conqueror, in making a report to his Commander-in-Chief, ought to have thus styled him.’

  The surgeon finally obtained his pass and set off for Longwood. In the meantime, the Governor had been taking steps to ensure that his every move was closely monitored. In a letter to Nicholls, he stipulated that whenever Stokoe arrived at Longwood, the Orderly Officer was to carefully check his pass and was to ‘inform himself as particularly as he can of the footing on which the Admiral may have granted him permission to visit General Bonaparte’. Any perceived deviation from these instructions was immediately to be made known to Stokoe. In addition, Verling was to be kept in a state of readiness to accompany Stokoe whenever the latter was in the presence of Napoleon or any of his followers.15

  Stokoe arrived at his destination at around 6pm. He first met with Nicholls and Verling. Plampin had strangely forgotten to mention to him the Gorrequer letter recommending that his visits be made in the company of his medical colleague. The Orderly Officer now read the relevant passage to Stokoe who commented to Verling that he would much prefer that they see Napoleon together. This was wishful thinking. When he then accompanied Nicholls to discuss the matter with Bertrand, the Grand Marshal said that it was futile to even broach the subject with the Emperor – he would rather die than receive Verling. This outcome remained possible as he was more ill, now unable to stand without help.

  The Orderly Officer retired and Stokoe was faced with a dilemma. Nicholls had warned him that if he decided to again visit Napoleon, the choice would be his alone. If he continued to act as the Emperor’s doctor, it was only a matter of time before the vultures in Plantation House and The Briars swooped down on him. On the other hand, Lowe had been careful to avoid definitively forbidding him to see Napoleon in Verling’s absence – the second surgeon’s presence was ‘desirable’ but not essential. If he walked away from Longwood and the Emperor was to die without any medical intervention, he would equally be held responsible. He had little faith that his superiors would shield him from the blame that would forever be attached to his name. He decided to see Napoleon; whatever the risks, this was the action one would have expected of a conscientious doctor.16

  Stokoe was alarmed to find that the French had not exaggerated his patient’s symptoms. He now had a fever and the doctor decided to spend the night at Bertrand’s house in case the symptoms became exacerbated. He was roused by the Grand Marshal at 3am as the Emperor had developed a severe headache. He remained a bad patient but, after some persuasion, he allowed himself to be bled and to be prescribed a strong dose of Cheltenham salts. The doctor remained convinced of his diagnosis of liver disease but Napoleon refused a course of mercury treatment. Such was his concern, the surgeon would happily have stayed at Longwood all Wednesday but, at 11am, he received an order to report to Plampin. On arriving at The Briars, he handed the Admiral a report of his most recent consultation and his opinion as to the source of the disease. Plampin decided to overlook Verling’s non-involvement and pursued a different angle of attack.

  ‘Did you tell Count Bertrand that I said Lord Bathurst and Lord Melville called Bonaparte General Bonaparte and that I took them for my model and I should have thought that quite sufficient guidance for the surgeon of the Conqueror?’

  ‘I daresay I did. It’s most likely that I did.’

  [To which the admiral replied] ‘You are a very dangerous character, if everything that is said by your Commander-in-Chief is to be carried to them at Longwood.’

  This conversation is quoted verbatim from the record produced by Elliot, the Admiral’s secretary. Stokoe, now a ‘very dangerous character’ in the eyes of his commanding officer, must have been bewildered by this attack. Plampin was presumably embarrassed that his pettiness regarding Napoleon’s title had been communicated to the French. Stokoe returned to his ship but, by late afternoon, he had received a fourth request from Bertrand to attend Longwood. He had now had time to deliberate on the events of the morning and he instead called at The Briars, handing the following letter to Plampin.

  His Majesty’s Ship Conqueror

  St. Helena

  20th January 1819

  Sir,

  The experience of today points out the necessity of my declining all further communication with Longwood. I therefore humbly beg leave that in case my services are again demanded in aid of General Bonaparte you will cause Count Bertrand to be acquainted with my wishes on this head.

  I have the honour, etc.

  John Stokoe

  Plampin made a note on the bottom of the letter acknowledging receipt but refused an immediate answer, instead ordering the doctor to attend Longwood and to remain there overnight before returning to him the next morning by half past ten without fail. Stokoe had been late in arriving at The Briars that morning and one suspects that, in giving this very specific order, Plampin was hoping that the surgeon would again be delayed and thus guilty of another misdemeanour.

  Stokoe reached Longwood at 8pm. The surgeon’s frame of mind is well described in Bertrand’s journal.

  He is afraid; he does not want to see the Emperor any more or to return to the Conqueror. He wants to go back to England. He has been treated most strangely; however, he cannot explain himself as he has been forbidden to do so by the admiral. I
n 20 years of service, he has never been treated like this before.

  Napoleon remained adamant that Verling should be excluded and Stokoe saw the patient alone at 10pm for about half an hour. He spent the night in Captain Nicholl’s room.17

  On the next day, Thursday 21st, the surgeon reviewed Napoleon at 9am. Bertrand says that he was keen to leave; no doubt he was trying to comply with the Admiral’s order. Unfortunately, he had a demanding patient. The Emperor wished the doctor to witness the therapeutic effects of a warm bath before his departure. Nicholls, in his usual watching brief, notes that Stokoe only left Napoleon at half past twelve and that he departed from Longwood at 12.50pm. Information disclosed in later years (to which we will return) suggests that both Napoleon and Stokoe knew that this was likely to be their final meeting. Harassed by his lateness, the doctor now fell from his horse on the crude road to The Briars. He suffered no serious injury but this served to delay him even more. He probably arrived at about 1.15pm and first gave the Admiral a brief summary of the Emperor’s health. Stokoe was now determined to bring matters to a head, complaining that he was being placed in an invidious position that prevented him giving proper medical care.

  I beg that you will take into consideration that in this business, my reputation and honour being equally implicated, I cannot take upon myself the charge of a patient of such consequence and so seriously ill, in the disagreeable situation in which I am now placed, not at liberty to give my assistance at every moment. Hereafter, in the event of any sudden catastrophe which may occur, I beg that my name may not be mentioned unless I am placed in the situation of O’Meara, in accordance with the Articles offered for your consideration the other day. If not, I desire to remain as surgeon of the Conqueror, and to be relieved from that responsibility that now weighs upon my name, and of which I foresee the alarming consequences.