Been in the Storm So Long
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54. Marcia Colton to Rev. George Whipple, June 14, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Lydia Maria Child to Sarah S. Shaw, April 8, 1866, Shaw Family Papers, New York Public Library; American Freedman, I (April 1866), 3 (editorial). See also National Freedman, I (March 1, 1865), 44 (annual report).
55. Botume, First Days Amongst the Contrabands, 31–32; Josiah Beardsley, Feb. 15, 1865, Marcia Colton to Rev. George Whipple, June 14, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Ames, From a New England Woman’s Diary in Dixie, 25–26; Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction, 58. On missionary comparisons of the blacks and the Irish, see also Towne, Letters and Diary, 6; Pearson (ed.), Letters from Port Royal, 11, 15, 18, 75.
56. George N. Greene to George Whipple, May 15, 1865, H. S. Beals to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Dec. 30, 1865, Frank H. Green to George Whipple, July 7, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Swint, Northern Teacher in the South, 41; National Freedman, I (Feb. 1, 1865), 14 (Juliet B. Smith); American Freedman, III (April 1869), 7 (Lucy Eastman).
57. National Freedman, I (April 1, 1865), 92 (Fannie Graves and Annie P. Merriam); S. S. Ashley to Col. N. A. McLean, Feb. 7, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
58. Towne, Letters and Diary, 26; New National Era, April 13, 1871. On the respective merits of practical and classical education, see also New Era, May 5, 1870 (“Genius and Its Exactions”).
59. Christian Recorder, Aug. 5, 1865; Quarles, Negro in the Civil War, 291; Wiley, Southern Negroes, 287. On the content of instruction, see also, e.g., Swint, Northern Teacher in the South, 80–90; Towne, Letters and Diary, 163; Extracts from Letters of Teachers and Superintendents of the New England Educational Commission for Freedmen (4th Series, Jan. 1, 1864; Boston, 1864), 8–10; Stearns, Black Man in the South, and The Rebels, 59–64; Christian Recorder, Sept. 29, 1866 (“Impressions of Charleston”); New York Tribune, June 2, 1865; New Era, Feb. 24, 1870 (J. W. Alvord).
60. A. L. Etheridge to William T. Briggs, June 7, 1864, Edwin S. Williams to S. S. Jocelyn, April 26, 1863, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Forten, Journal, 131.
61. Sarah J. Foster to E. P. Smith, Jan. 3, 1868, W. L. Coan to George Whipple, Oct. 6, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Reid, After the War, 249–50; Botume, First Days Amongst the Contrabands, 257; New York Tribune, Dec. 2, 1865.
62. National Freedman, II (April 1866), 115 (Chloe Merrick); American Freedman, III (May 1868), 412.
63. Mary E. Burdick to George Whipple, March 8, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives. On comparisons of white and black students and the aptness of blacks for various fields of study, see Josiah Beardsley, Feb. 15, 1865 (Ms. apparently intended for publication in The American Missionary), G. H. Hyde to W. E. Whiting, Feb. 26, 1862, William G. Kephart to Lewis Tappan, May 9, 1864, John Silsby to Rev. George Whipple, Sept. 14, 1866, Elliot Whipple to Rev. E. P. Smith, June 17, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives; National Freedman, I (April 1, 1865), 92, (July 15, 1865), 191–92, (Aug. 15, 1865), 217; Extracts from Letters of Teachers and Superintendents of the New England Educational Commission for Freedmen (4th series, Jan. 1, 1864), 3, 7, 9; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 91, 256; Dennett, The South As It Is, 207; Trowbridge, The South, 337; Reid, After the War, 255; Macrae, Americans at Home, 342–45; New York Times, Aug. 6, 17, 1865; New York Tribune, July 7, 1865. On comparisons of black and mulatto students, see Loyal Georgian, March 17, 1866; National Freedman, I (Aug. 15, 1865), 218; Nordhoff, Freedmen of South Carolina, 9.
64. Botume, First Days Amongst the Contrabands, 107–09; National Freedman, I (Sept. 15, 1865), 251; Christian Recorder, July 1, 1865; Reid, After the War, 15–17, 246–53; Dennett, The South As It Is, 206–08, 211, 304.
65. Freedom’s Journal, June 1, 1827; Frank H. Green to Rev. George Whipple, Aug. 12, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Christian Recorder, May 6, 1865 (J. C. Gibbs).
66. Rev. W. T. Richardson to Mrs. E. A. Lane, April 29, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Christian Recorder, July 8, 1865 (G.N.Y.).
67. Asa B. Whitfield to Julia A. Shearman, April 17, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
68. 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 247; Moore (ed.), The Juhl Letters (Sept. 18, 1866), 120.
69. Richardson, Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida, 100; N. A. McLean to Rev. S. S. Ashley, Feb. 20, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives; J. W. Alvord, Eighth Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, July 1, 1869, 54. See also John Silsby to Rev. George Whipple, Sept. 14, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives; National Freedman, I (Nov. 15, 1865), 316 (B. W. Pond).
70. Botume, First Days Amongst the Contrabands, 4; [Prof. Bennett Puryear], The Public School in Its Relation to the Negro (Richmond, 1877), 11. See also 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 2, “Report of Carl Schurz,” 25; Evans, Ballots and Fence Rails, 226–27.
71. Nolen, Negro’s Image in the South, 127–28.
72. 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 55, 86, 143, 183, 252; B. F. Whittemore to Bvt. Maj. H. W. Smith, Dec. 30, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; D. C. Jencks to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Dec. 21, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
73. D. T. Allen to Rev. C. H. Fowler, Jan. 1, 1864, American Missionary Assn. Archives; Amos McCollough et al. to Gen. O. O. Howard, May 6, 1866, Charles F. Mayerhoff to Col. Samuel Thomas, April 2, 1866, R. F. Campbell to Col. Samuel Thomas, April 5, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, North Carolina and Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau. On native white reaction to black schools and the reception accorded teachers of freedmen, see also John P. Bardwell to George Whipple, April 28, May 4, 1866, William L. Clark to Rev. E. P. Smith, Nov. 19, 1867, Rev. George W. Honey to Rev. M. E. Strieby, Feb. 21, 1866, Addie Warren to John P. Bardwell, May 6, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives; National Freedman, I (Nov. 15, 1865), 324 (M. Anderson), (Dec. 15, 1865), 347 (A. B. Corliss), 360 (W. J. Albert), II (May 1866), 149; American Freedman, III (June 1868), 427; Waterbury, Seven Years Among the Freedmen, 19; Office of the Board of Education for Freedmen, Dept. of the Gulf, Report (Feb. 28, 1865), 8–9; Trowbridge, The South, 188, 228, 490; Loyal Georgian, May 9, 1867; Swint, Northern Teacher in the South, 94–142.
74. Christian Recorder, June 16, 1866; New Orleans Tribune, Dec. 29, 1865, Sept. 5, 1866; John P. Bardwell to George Whipple, April 28, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives; National Freedman, I (Nov. 15, 1865), 328 (C. Kennedy).
75. 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 253; Towne, Letters and Diary, 178. See also J. W. Alvord, Eighth Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, July 1, 1869, 23; Loyal Georgian, July 6, 1867 (G. L. Eberhart); New York Tribune, Dec. 2, 1865.
76. Sallie Coit to Emily, April 15, 1868, William N. Tillinghast Papers, Duke Univ.; A. W. Moore to E. H. Dabbs, April 30, 1870, A. L. Burt Papers, Duke Univ.
77. Reid, After the War, 152; Botume, First Days Amongst the Contrabands, 257–58. For examples of racial mixing in the freedmen’s schools, see Rev. Fisk P. Brewer to Rev. George Whipple, Nov. 8, 1866 (“I would not have it made too public till we can show more decided results”), American Missionary Assn. Archives; American Freedman, I (June 1866), 43 (F. P. Brewer), 44 (E. B. Adams), (July 1866), 80; Swint (ed.), Dear Ones at Home, 204; Richardson, Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida, 108–09. On the fate of the “experiment” in Raleigh, see Fisk P. Brewer to George Whipple, Feb. 6, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
78. American Freedman, I (April 1866), 5–6, (May 1866), 23–24; H. S. Beals to Rev. E. P. Smith, Feb. 15, 1867, Rev. S. J. Whiton to Rev. E. P. Smith, Feb. 16, 1867, Rev. S. J. Whiton to Rev. George Whipple, Feb. 28, 1867, Rev. S. J. Whiton to Rev. E. P. Smith, March 4, 1867, John Scott to Rev. E. P. Smith, March 6, 1867, Hyman Thompson to Rev. George Whipple, March 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
79. New York Times, Dec. 15, 1867.
80. New Orleans Tribune, April 26, 1867, Jan. 22, 1869. See also ibid., Feb. 17, 23, 1865, July 24, Oct. 24, 29, 1867; William T. Nicholls to “Cousin Tom,” Col. W. W. Pugh Papers, Louisiana State Univ.; J. W. Alvord, Tenth Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, July 1, 1870, 48.
81. Avary, Dixie after the War, 312; Mary to Missouria Stokes, June 1868, Missouria Stokes Papers, Duke Univ.; Miss. S. W. Stansbury to Rev. E. P. Smith, May 21, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
82. G. L. Eberhart to Rev. Samuel Hunt, May 23, June 4, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives. See also J. E. Bryant to Rev. George Whipple, June 12, 1866, Davis Tillson to Rev. Whipple, July 4, 1866.
83. American Freedman, I (Nov. 1866), 114 (editorial); Martha L. Kellogg to Rev. George Whipple, Dec. 17, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
84. On the question of racial mixing in the abolitionist movement, see, e.g., Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790–1860 (Chicago, 1961), 216–23.
85. Lewis Tappan, Caste: A Letter to a Teacher Among the Freedmen (New York [1867]), 9; Christian Recorder, Jan. 7, 1865.
86. Christian Recorder, April 23, 1864, June 29, 1867, Jan. 7, 1865. See also the sources cited in note 24.
87. New York Times, Dec. 8, 1861; WPA, Negro in Virginia, 263.
88. Forten, Journal, 133; Virginia C. Green to A. W. Preston, Oct. 24, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau. See also Jonathan J. Wright to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Feb. 5, 1866, T. G. Steward to John A. Rockwell, Nov. 6, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
89. Francis L. Cardozo to Rev. George Whipple, July 5, 1865, Cardozo to Rev. M. E. Strieby, Aug. 13, 1866, Cardozo to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Dec. 2, 1865, Jan. 13 [1866]. On the progress of his school, see Cardozo to Hunt, Oct. 10, Nov. 7, 22, Dec. 2, 15, 1865, Cardozo to Whipple, Oct. 21, 1865, Jan. 27, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
90. Francis L. Cardozo, School Report for November 1867, Sarah W. Stansbury to E. P. Smith, Jan. 30, 1867, Cardozo to E. P. Smith, Dec. 24, 1866, Jane A. Van Allen to E. P. Smith, Feb. 16, 1867, Cardozo to E. P. Smith, April 9, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives. For visits to Cardozo’s school, see Dennett, The South As It Is, 217–18; Macrae, Americans at Home, 266–69; Cardozo to Rev. Samuel Hunt, March 10, 1866, Jonathan J. Wright to Hunt, Dec. 4, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
91. Francis L. Cardozo to Rev. George Whipple, Oct. 21, 1865, Cardozo to E. P. Smith, Nov. 4, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives. On his preparations for the constitutional convention and the prospect of his candidacy for secretary of state of South Carolina, see Cardozo to E. P. Smith, Dec. 7, 1867, Jan. 2, March 9, 1868, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
92. C. W. Buckley to Rev. George Whipple, March 13, 1866, G. L. Eberhart to Ira Pettibone, Oct. 19, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives. On the preference for black teachers in the “interior,” see J. W. Alvord, Seventh Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, January 1, 1869, 24.
93. S. S. Ashley to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Jan. 22, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives. On the preference for white teachers, see also American Freedman, I (Oct. 1866), 106 (W. D. Newsome); Reid, After the War, 511. On the objections of free-born “colored people” to “a teacher born in bondage, unless of a very light complexion,” see J. W. Alvord, Ninth Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, January 1, 1870, 15–16.
94. Blanche Harris to Rev. George Whipple, Jan. 23, March 10, 1866, John P. Bardwell to Whipple, March 20, April 2, 1866, Rev. Palmer Litts to Whipple, April 27, 1866, Addie Warren to John P. Bardwell, May 6, 1866, John P. Bardwell to Rev. Samuel Hunt, June 22, 1866, Mary Still to Hunt, Feb. 19, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
95. Christian Recorder, Sept. 8, 1866 (T.W.C.); Blanche Harris to Rev. George Whipple, March 10, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
96. Christian Recorder, Dec. 2, 1865 (“Editorial Correspondence”).
97. Washington, Up from Slavery, 28; John P. Bardwell to Rev. M. E. Strieby, Nov. 20, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives; New York Times, June 22, 1866, Aug. 21, 863. On black support of schools and teachers and independent educational efforts, see also, e.g., B. F. Randolph to Bvt. Maj. Gen. R. K. Scott, March 15, 1867, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; De Forest, Union Officer in the Reconstruction, 118–21; Trowbridge, The South, 228, 251; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 251, 254, 256, 257; Blassingame (ed.), Slave Testimony, 386; Loyal Georgian, July 6, 1867; New York Times, Sept. 2, 10, 1865.
98. Christian Recorder, Jan. 21, 1865 (J. Lynch); W. T. Richardson to Rev. M. E. Strieby, Jan. 2, 1865, Richardson to Rev. George Whipple, Jan. 10, 1865, Rev. S. W. Magill to Whipple, Feb. 3, 6, 26, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
99. Christian Recorder, Aug. 27, 1864 (“Junius”).
100. T. K. Noble to Rev. George Whipple, Sept. 29, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
Chapter Ten: Becoming a People
1. A. H. Haines to President Andrew Johnson, Oct. 19, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.
2. Christian Recorder, Jan. 20, 1866.
3. Discussion of the Freedmen’s Convention of North Carolina and the political activity among blacks which preceded and immediately followed it is based on Convention of the Freedmen of North Carolina: Official Proceedings [Raleigh, 1865]; Christian Recorder, Oct. 28, 1865 (same as official proceedings, except for additional speech by James Harris; also includes a report of a mass meeting in Edgecombe Co.); National Freedman, I (Oct. 15, 1865), 289, 301–02; New York Times, May 19 and Sept. 17 (New Bern), Oct. 7 and 9 (state conv), 1865; New York Tribune, Oct. 7 (state conv.), 24 (Edgecombe Co.), 1865; New Orleans Tribune, Sept. 24 (Robeson Co., N.C.), Oct. 19 (Wilmington), 1865; Dennett, The South As It Is, 148–54, 156, 175–77; Andrews, The South since the War, 119–31, 162, 188; Evans, Ballots and Fence Rails, 87–93, 110–12; Perrin Busbee to Benjamin S. Hedrick, Jan. 8, 1866, B. S. Hedrick Papers, Duke Univ.; James H. Harris Papers, 1850 to 1873, State Dept. of Archives and History, Raleigh, N.C; Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the National Equal Rights League, Held in Cleveland, Ohio, October 19, 20, and 21, 1865 (Philadelphia, 1865), 4.
4. New York Times, Oct. 11, 1866; New Orleans Tribune, Oct. 27, 1866.
5. Christian Recorder, Oct. 28, 1865; Rogers, Thomas County, 1865–1900, 8, 13.
6. Andrews, The South since the War, 131, 188; Dennett, The South As It Is, 149, 175; New York Times, Oct. 24, 1865, Nov. 19, 1866; Proceedings of the Convention of the Colored People of Virginia, Held in the City of Alexandria, Aug. 2, 3, 4, 5, 1865 (Alexandria, 1865), 4, 11.
7. New Orleans Tribune, Jan. 15, 1865.
8. Christian Recorder, April 21, 1866.
9. See, e.g., Loyal Georgian, July 6, 1867 (H. M. Turner); Christian Recorder, Sept. 30 (R. H. Cain), Nov. 25 (T. G. Campbell), 1865, April 21, 1866 (R. H. Cain), May 4 (J. J. Wright), 11 (H. M. Turner), Aug. 17 (H. M. Turner), Oct. 12 (M. R. Delany), 1867, Feb. 1, 1868 (H. M. Turner), June 26, 1869 (M. R. Delany); Cardozo to Rev. George Whipple, Oct. 21, 1865, Cardozo to Rev. E. P. Smith, Nov. 4, 1867, March 9, 1868, Wright to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Dec. 4, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives; T. G. Campbell, Sufferings of the Rev. T. G. Campbell and His Family, in Georgia (Washington, D.C., 1877); H. M. Turner, “Speech on the Eligibility of Colored Members to Seats in the Georgia Legislature … September 3d, 1868,” in George A. Singleton, The Romance of African Methodism: A Study of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (New York, 1952), Appendix B, 1–16.
10. Williamson, After Slavery, 26–30; Higginson, Army Life in a Black Regiment, 57–58.
11. Dennett, The South As It Is, 150; Andrews, The South since the War, 123, 131.
12. Dennett, The South As It Is, 150–51; New Orleans Tribune, May 7, 1867 (Letter from Mobile); “Proceedings of the State Convention of the Colored Peop
le of Tennessee,” in Colored Tennessean, Aug. 12, 1865.
13. Convention of the Colored People of Virginia (Aug. 1865), 10; New Orleans Tribune, March 15, 1865. For Horace Greeley’s message, see Convention of the Freedmen of North Carolina (Sept.-Oct. 1865), 9–11.
14. Proceedings of the Freedmen’s Convention of Georgia, Assembled at Augusta, January 10th, 1866 (Augusta, 1866), 21, 23; New Orleans Tribune, July 18, 1865 (Letter from Mobile).
15. New Orleans Tribune, Jan. 20, Feb. 1, 1865. Similar editorial advice may be found in the issues of March 7, April 25, 1865, May 1, 19, June 12, 1867.
16. Dennett, The South As It Is, 152–53; J. W. Alvord, Seventh Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, January 1, 1869, 50.
17. On free-born “colored society,” see Berlin, Slaves Without Masters; Marina Wikramanayake, A World in Shadow: The Free Black in Antebellum South Carolina (Columbia, S.C., 1973); Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation’s Capital (Princeton, 1967); and Blassingame, Black New Orleans.
18. Bruce, The New Man, 79; W. L. Tilden, Washington, D.C., Feb. 12, 1866 (Ms. report), American Missionary Assn. Archives; John E. Bruce, Washington’s Colored Society (n.p., 1877; typewritten copy in Schomburg Collection, New York Public Library).
19. Williamson, After Slavery, 314. For an examination of “colored society,” as “moulded by outside forces,” see Rev. T. G. Steward, “Colored Society,” Christian Recorder, Nov. 9, 16, 23, Dec. 14, 28, 1876, Jan. 11, 18, 1877.
20. New Orleans Tribune, Feb. 19, 1869. For similar sentiments, see the issues of Dec. 6, 29, 1864, March 28, June 30, 1865. But for the persistence of divisiveness, see, e.g., Semi-Weekly Louisianian, May 25, 1871.
21. Christian Recorder, April 21, 1866.
22. New York Tribune, Nov. 29, 1865 (Convention of Colored People, South Carolina).
23. Freedmen’s Convention of Georgia (Jan. 1866), 19. See also Convention of the Freedmen of North Carolina (Sept.-Oct. 1865), 14.