Unknown Seas: The Portuguese Captains and the Passage to India

by Ronald Watkins

  This ‘Catalan map’was richly detailed, although its features were grotesquely distorted, and contained a tantalizing mix of fact and myth. It was for the time a fascinating read and offered the most comprehensive presentation of the oceans and lands of the known world ever previously gathered on a single chart. The Azores were clearly indicated, and even named, as were six of the Canary Islands. The Atlas mountains were drawn in north Africa with the annotation ‘Here pass the merchants who come from the lands of negroes of Guinea.’Three kingdoms of west Africa are named with the legend ‘The King of the Negroes of Guinea is the most illustrious and the richest ruler of that land, because of the abundance of gold which one gathers in his dominion.’

  Reference was made to Prester John, to the Queen of Sheba, and near the Himalayas was the annotation that ‘the Christian King Stephen’ ruled. India was identified as beginning at Ormuz, from which both precious stones and spices were known to originate. The names and approximate locations of the cities of China were apparently lifted from Marco Polo’s account. The Sunda Islands appear with the annotation ‘the Sea of India where the spices are’. Finally there was Sumatra, ‘the last island which one meets in the East’.40

  Cresque Le Jeheu, astronomer of the King of Aragon, a converted Jew renamed Jacomo, subsequently produced three highly respected maps. Following the death of his royal patron he joined the court gathered about Henry at Sagres, where he is reported to have taught navigation to Portuguese officers and continued making maps.

  There were among the known maps of this time many disturbing references. A historian of the Berbers wrote of the Atlantic that it was ‘a sea without limits, that mariners dared not leave the coast, because they knew not where the winds might drive them, and that beyond that sea there is no inhabited land’. The Arab geographers Aboulfeda and Idrisia wrote that:

  No one knows what lies beyond the Atlantic; no one has been able to discover anything for certain, on account of the difficulties of navigation, due to the darkness, the height of the waves, the frequency of the tempests, and the violence of the winds. However, there are in this sea a number of islands, inhabited and uninhabited, but no mariners dare venture to cross it, nor to sail out into the open sea. They content themselves with sailing as close to the land as not to lose sight of the coast.

  At this time a line formed by Cape Bojador in the western Sahara and the Canary Islands north of it was the boundary below which little was known, though myths about the region were abundant. The Arabs had called the region the ‘Green Sea of Darkness’from which there was no possibility of return. Legend held that between twelve and fifteen thousand failed attempts had been made to sail beyond it. One European cartographer recorded on his map at Cape Nam ‘Here ends the known world.’It is no wonder that the prospect of venturing into the unmapped void south of Cape Bojador was viewed with superstition and fear.

  It is unnecessary to speculate as to Henry’s motives for initiating his undertaking since Azurara, who knew Henry, recorded them for us, yet historians continue to do so, as if the issue was unresolved. First, Henry had ‘a wish to know the land that lay beyond the Canary Islands and that Cape called Bojador, for that up to his time, neither by writings, nor by the memory of man, was known with any certainty the nature of the land beyond that Cape’. Curiosity then. Simple human curiosity as a powerful driving force should not be lightly discounted.

  While much was obscure, kingdoms in the Niger region were commonly known to exist and as early as 1350 it was estimated that two-thirds of the world’s supply of gold came from west Africa.41 As Henry’s second reason Azurara wrote:

  [I]f there chanced to be in those lands . . . some havens, into which it would be possible to sail without peril, many kinds of merchandise might be brought into this realm, which would find a ready market . . . because no other people of these parts traded with them. . . . And also the products of this realm might be taken there, which traffic would bring great profit to our countrymen.

  The third reason identified by Azurara was religion. It was the goal of all Christendom to defeat the infidel, and as Grand Master Henry was specifically so charged. He wished to know more of the enemy, therefore ‘the said Lord Infant exerted himself to cause this to be fully discovered, and to make it known determinately, how far the power of those infidels extended.’He sought as well to discover a Christian king or lord with whom to make alliance to ‘aid him [in war] against those enemies of the faith’. Henry was concerned as well for the ‘the salvation of lost souls’.

  The final reason recorded by Azurara, and the one from which all others stemmed, was ‘the inclination of the heavenly wheels’–in other words, Henry’s horoscope. He was not in line for the throne and needed to do something of worth with his life, so he would have learned with satisfaction that the stars ordained that he ‘should toil at high and mighty conquests, especially in seeking out things that were hidden from other men and secret’.

  As it developed, the Portuguese explorations along the coast of Africa proceeded in irregular phases, the scope of their effort increasing with each new success. At regular intervals advances in navigation, seamanship, shipbuilding and the emergence of skilled captains made possible the next stage of exploration. In time, the ultimate goal of India became not only possible but probable. It all occurred in a logical progression that gave the entire effort the mystique of inevitability.

  So it was for Henry’s commitment to his life’s work, which slowly evolved during his research and consultations. The plan, as he conceived it early on, was to use his resources as Grand Master of the Order of Christ to push his ships ever south along the coast of pagan Africa, to carry to those primitive peoples the word of God and to bring back to the king pepper, ivory and gold. The ultimate goal was to establish a link with the elusive Prester John and his Christian kingdom. The location of this kingdom, long held to be somewhere in Asia, was uncertain but once the link was made Christian Europe and Portugal would have a powerful ally in the fight against the Muslims. The sea route thus established would become a highway across which the riches of the East would flow through the trading houses of Lisbon, to the glory and fame of both Portugal and the king.

  5

  The cape of fear

  The initial objective of the first Portuguese ship dispatched after the seizure of Ceuta was to sail beyond Cape Bojador, to gather information and, most importantly, to return. If successful, Prince Henry hoped to rid the region of the mythology and dread that surrounded it.

  It is difficult today to understand the deep-seated significance this modest cape had for the medieval mariner mind. The African shoreline there is barren with an expanse of low-lying vermilion cliffs, while the cape itself is scarcely discernible. But when Henry sent out that first ship no vessel that had ever sailed below Cape Bojador had returned. The ships had effectively, if not literally, dropped off the face of the Earth.

  The west coast of Africa is an especially inhospitable part of the world, as are its ocean waters, and the route to Cape Bojador was particularly treacherous. Powerful siroccos, building their strength from deep in the Sahara, blow to sea, impeding the progress of ships. The ocean currents that were so crucial to the sailing vessels of the time were unknown and, because they were not known, were treacherous. Even today the area is not safe sailing and is avoided whenever possible. In addition, there was no protecting anchorage for sailing ships, nor any refuge to which they could readily flee if nature compelled it. If caught in a squall or a powerful, unfamiliar weather pattern, they had no available port. They were naked at sea, utterly exposed to the elements.

  There was a steady southward sea current off Cape Bojador. Along with the prevailing summer wind, which blew from the north, this made the trip south relatively easy, assuming the small vessels did not fall foul of unknown currents or a sudden storm. But the square-rigged ships of that time had limited tacking ability and could only just manage to return against both the current and wind. Some were not able to
make it at all.

  During this initial period more than a dozen voyages to round Cape Bojador were unsuccessful and from the outset there were deaths and lost ships. Those captains who did return rarely sailed below the Canary Islands and the few who actually sighted the cape lost their nerve and turned back. Many of these early captains turned to piracy against Arab ships to bring a measure of ‘honour’to their effort. Sailing techniques were simply not up to the effort, nor was Henry possessed of captains with sufficient experience to face uncertainty with confidence and courage.

  In those early decades every ship sent out began a figurative clock the moment it left the Portuguese coastline. The supplies were consumed at a specific pace. The crew suffered injury and illness at a less predictable but not less certain rate. The ship itself began to deteriorate at once, slowly at first, but with ever greater speed in the warm waters off Africa. The decline was apparent to every seaman and only served to spread uncertainty and fear.

  The fact was that the vessel and crew could last just so many days at sea before either dying or becoming unable to make the return voyage. The captain and crew knew only approximately how much time they had, but they understood with absolute certainty that their time was running out and that their lives depended, at some point, on beating back against wind and current to a safe harbour, which in those earliest days meant Portugal.

  It is not surprising then that the first attempts to sail below Cape Bojador were unsuccessful, especially as they were attempted in galley ships little different in design from their Roman counterparts. In the safety and comfort of Henry’s estate the reasons given for turning back sounded almost trivial or nothing more than superstition. For someone who spent little time at sea and who was of noble birth, Henry was uncommonly understanding and accepting of the repeated failures of his captains. It would seem that he grasped the true barrier to be mental rather than physical.

  Azurara writes:

  [T]here was not one who dared to pass Cape of Bojador and learn about the land beyond it, as the Infant wished. And to say the truth this was not from cowardice or want of good will, but from the novelty of the thing and widespread and ancient rumour about this Cape, that had been cherished by mariners of Spain from generation to generation.

  How are we, men said, to pass the bounds that our fathers set up, or what profit can result to the Infant from the perdition of our souls as well as of our bodies –for of a truth by daring any further we shall become wilful murderers of ourselves?

  But being satisfied of the peril, and seeing no hope of honour or profit, they left off the attempt. For, said the mariners, this much is clear, that beyond this Cape there is no race of men nor place of inhabitants: nor is the land less sandy than the desert of Libya, where there is no water, no tree, no green herb – and the sea so shallow that a whole league from land it is only a fathom deep, while the currents are so terrible that no ship having once passed the Cape, will ever be able to return.

  The ominous legends and tales of the region were enhanced by the actual experiences of the sailors. They had discovered for themselves that these were treacherous, unpredictable waters with no respite to be found along the barren coastline. There were frequent, unexpected fogs, which engulfed and threatened the ships, the waters were shallow far out to sea and the currents unpredictable. Worse, the storms from the vast desert behind the cape roared far out over the ocean. A red powdery dust settled on every part of each ship, and captains reported that their vessels glowed with an unnatural hue. Although they sailed many miles to sea to avoid the storms, the winds and dust still found them. The sailors were much disturbed by this and the other unnatural phenomena they encountered.

  Legend said there were sea monsters and massive whirlpools in these waters, and that no humanity existed, or could exist, in those regions. The sea was said to boil in the heat. The climate became ever hotter as the ships made their way south and only certain bizarre creatures could survive. Nothing grew there, it was claimed. Here also lay the Antipodes, where fierce monsters dwelled. There were also said to be great treasures of gold and gems guarded by ferocious dragons, beautiful women whose provocative gaze could kill a man, and giants who waded into the sea and destroyed any ship passing their way. The reports of returning crews fed into the legends.

  With no immediate success along the coast of Africa and tantalizing islands appearing on maps, ancient and contemporary, Henry dispatched ships to search for them. Two of his captains sailed west and discovered Madeira, an island rich in forests, fresh water and fertile land. It was also one of the most beautiful places on Earth and a portent of what wondrous lands lay to be discovered. Madeira was known at least as early as Roman times but, like other Atlantic islands, its location had been lost. The first colonists arrived from Portugal in 1425 and the island was soon sending back to Portugal timber, wine and sugar, which quickly replaced honey in sweetening drinks and food throughout Europe.

  Madeira was profitable for both Portugal and Henry, who now had an improved means of subsidizing his voyages. Profits were not limited to sugar. Between 1450 and 1470 the island produced between 3,000 and 3,500 tons of grain, more than half of which was shipped to Portugal.

  The settlement of Madeira and, a little later, of the Azores were the first successful European colonizations in the Atlantic and served as models. The Portuguese regarded themselves as pioneers in a New World. The first boy born on Madeira was named Adam, and the first girl Eve. It was an auspicious beginning for the explorations.

  But the true destination lay south along the coast of Africa and Henry renewed his efforts there. In 1433 he dispatched one of his proven and most trusted captains, Gil Eanes, a squire in his household and a native of Lagos, with orders to round the cape, but when he approached its waters his crew refused to sail on, claiming they could see the water to the south boiling in the hot sun. It is easy to imagine the frustration Henry experienced upon Eanes’s return.

  Henry’s patience with his captains and crews had finally reached its limit. Azurara recounts the next set of instructions he gave to Eanes:

  [T]he Infant made ready the same vessel and, calling Gil Eanes apart, charged him earnestly to strain every nerve to pass that Cape. . . . ‘You cannot find’, said the Infant, ‘a peril so great that the hope of reward will not be greater. . . . Go forth . . . but make your voyage straightforward, inasmuch as with the grace of God you cannot but gain from this journey both honour and profit.’

  Henry was, Azurara assures us, ‘a man of very great authority’, and Eanes steeled himself not to return without success. He decided to take a new route. Rather than sail to the African coast once he reached the Canary Islands (the usual route these voyages took), Eanes elected on this occasion to remain at sea in a manoeuvre the Portuguese would in time master. There were dangers in staying so far from known land in unknown waters, but there were also advantages. His crew was not subjected to the ominous site of the cape, and in blue water the coastal currents were not a threat to the vessel. Eanes sailed southward for several days until he was satisfied he must be below the cape, then turned east to follow favourable winds towards the coast of Africa.

  The coastline that came into view was barren but missing the imposing red cliffs. They were beyond Cape Bojador. A jubilant Eanes laid anchor and led a party of men ashore. He found no sign of human habitation but with satisfaction observed the footprints of both men and camels. There was also the reassuring presence of vegetation, sparse though it was. Eanes plucked a cluster of red flowering plants which he named the Rose of Saint Mary and carried it back to his vessel.

  Despite sailing against the prevailing current and winds, Eanes was able to make the return voyage. The boiling water previously reported by crews proved to be only waves breaking on the shore at Cape Bojador. There had been no sea monsters or whirlpools; indeed they had seen signs of man. The caravans of north Africa were well known and Eanes had proved they existed even this far south. He had sailed perhaps 50 miles below
the cape but the significance of his accomplishment was astounding. If they could sail beyond Cape Bojador and return, then what other legends were also untrue? Everything became suspect except what the Portuguese saw for themselves.

  Henry received the plumred Rose of Saint Mary as if it was manna from God. When Eanes recounted what he had seen, the prince understood its significance immediately. It was said that ‘beyond Cape Bojador the land is desert, there is no water, no tree, no green herb’. The plant he held proved that a lie. ‘As you have found traces of men and camels,’he said, ‘it is evident that the inhabited region cannot be far off.’He informed Eanes that he was to return, accompanied by another ship, go as far as possible and try to acquire an interpreter from the people he would surely discover there. This time Eanes sailed in a barca, a ship small enough to be conveniently rowed if necessary. Some 70 miles further down the coast the captains came upon a river which they named the Rio de Ouro, in anticipation of the gold they hoped they would find up its course. Two men were sent ashore on horseback with orders to secure someone to interpret and give them knowledge of the interior and points south. Their bungled attempts to seize the first men they encountered succeeded only in scaring them off. Unable to find any other people to capture, the captains ordered the slaughter of a large herd of seals at the mouth of the river and returned to Henry with the hides, the first commercial contribution of the voyages of discovery from Africa itself.