The Design of Everyday Things
Page 38
Spink, A., Cole, C., & Waller, M. (2008). Multitasking behavior. Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 42(1), 93–118.
Strayer, D. L., & Drews, F. A. (2007). Cell-phone–induced driver distraction. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(3), 128–131.
Strayer, D. L., Drews, F. A., & Crouch, D. J. (2006). A Comparison of the cell phone driver and the drunk driver. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 48(2), 381–391.
Toyota Motor Europe Corporate Site. (2013). Toyota production system. Retrieved February 19, 2013, from http://www.toyota.eu/about/Pages/toyota_production_system.aspx
Verganti, R. (2009). Design-driven innovation: Changing the rules of competition by radically innovating what things mean. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press. http://www.designdriveninnovation.com/
Verganti, R. (2010). User-centered innovation is not sustainable. Harvard Business Review Blogs (March 19, 2010). http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/2010/03/user-centered_innovation_is_no.html
Vermeulen, J., Luyten, K., Hoven, E. V. D., & Coninx, K. (2013). Crossing the bridge over Norman’s gulf of execution: Revealing feedforward’s true identity. Paper presented at CHI 2013, Paris, France.
Wegner, D. M. (1987). Transactive memory: A contemporary analysis of the group mind. In B. Mullen & G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Theories of group behavior (pp. 185–208). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~wegner/pdfs/WegnerTransactiveMemory.pdf
Wegner, T. G., & Wegner, D. M. (1995). Transactive memory. In A. S. R. Manstead & M. Hewstone (Eds.), The Blackwell encyclopedia of social psychology (pp. 654–656). Oxford, England; Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Whitehead, A. N. (1911). An introduction to mathematics. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company
Wiki of Science (2013). Error (human error). Retrieved from http://wikiofscience.wikidot.com/quasiscience:error on February 6, 2013.
Wikipedia contributors. (2013a). Air Inter Flight 148. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved February 13, 2103, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Inter_Flight_148&oldid=534971641
Wikipedia contributors. (2013b). Decimal time. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved February 13, 2013, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decimal_time&oldid=501199184
Wikipedia contributors. (2013c). Stigler’s law of eponymy. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved February 2, 2013, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stigler%27s_law_of_eponymy&oldid=531524843
Wikipedia contributors. (2013d). Telephonoscope. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved February 8, 2013, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telephonoscope&oldid=535002147
Winograd, E., & Soloway, R. M. (1986). On forgetting the locations of things stored in special places. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 115(4), 366–372.
Woods, D. D., Dekker, S., Cook, R., Johannesen, L., & Sarter, N. (2010). Behind human error (2nd edition). Farnham, Surry, UK; Burlington, VT: Ashgate. Yasuoka, K., & Yasuoka, M. (2013). QWERTY people archive. Retrieved February 8, 2013, from http://kanji.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/db-machine/~yasuoka/QWERTY/
Zhai, S., & Kristensson, P. O. (2012). The word-gesture keyboard: Reimagining keyboard interaction. Communications of the ACM, 55(9), 91–101. http://www.shuminzhai.com/shapewriter-pubs.htm
INDEX
Abelson, Bob, 129
A/B testing, 224–225
Accidents
“Five Whys,” 165–169
investigation of, 163–169, 197–198
root cause analysis of, 164
social and institutional pressures and, 186–191
when human error really is to blame, 210–211
See also Error; Mistakes; Slips
Acoustical memory, 94
Action
Gulfs of Execution and Evaluation and, 38–40
opportunistic, 43
reversing, 199, 203, 205
stages of, 40–44, 55–56, 71–73, 172–173
subconscious nature of many, 42
See also Psychology of everyday actions
Action slips, 171, 173, 174, 194
Activity
complete immersion into, 55–56
task vs., 232–234
Activity-centered controls, 140–141
Activity-centered design, 231–234
Adams, Marilyn, 74
Affordances, xiv–xv, 10–13, 19–20, 60, 72, 145, 298
applying to everyday objects, 132–141
minimizing chance of inappropriate actions using, 67
misuse of term, 13–14
perceived, 13, 18, 19, 145
signifiers vs., xiv–xv, 14, 18, 19
Agile process of product development, 234
Airbus accident, 178–179
Air Florida crash, 188–189
Airplane
attitude indicator design, 121–122
failure of automation in, 214
landing gear switch design, 135
mode-error slips and control design, 178–179
See also Aviation
Airplane accidents, 164–166, 172, 178–179, 186–187, 188–189, 314
Air-traffic control instructions, pilots remembering, 105–107
Alarm clocks, mode-error slips and, 178
Alert, sound signifier as, 160
“’Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves,” 86
Altair 8800 computer, 274
Amazon.com, 264
Andon, 192
Annoyance of sounds, 156, 160
Anti-lock brakes, rule-based mistake in using, 182
Apple, 121, 233, 250, 270, 272, 289
Apple QuickTake camera, 272
Arithmetic, mental, 103–104
Automation, 185, 213–214, 248–316
Automobiles
activity-centered design of, 231–232
application of constraints to, 202
auditory and haptic modalities for warning systems, 95
door handles, 133–134
failure of first American, 274, 279–280
incremental innovation in, 279–280
interlocks and, 142
limited life span of, 292
seat adjustment control, 22
standardization and, 248
starting, 141–142
technology and changes in, 267–268
See also Driving
Aviation
deliberate violation example, 211
interruptions and errors in, 200
NASA’s safety reporting system, 193–194
use of checklists in, 189–190, 191
See also Airplane
Baby locks, 144
Battery design, 125–127
Baum, L. Frank, 227
Beeps, 156
Be-goals, 233
Behavior
constraints forcing desired, 141–145
data-driven, 43
event-driven, 42, 43
goal-driven, 42–43, 44
knowledge-based, 179, 180
knowledge in the head and in the world and, 75–85
rule-based, 179, 180
skill-based, 179, 180, 206–207
technology accommodating, 68–71
Behavioral level of processing, 51–53
design and, 54, 55
emotional responses and, 56
relation to visceral and reflective stages, 54–55
stages of action and, 55–56
Bell, Alexander Graham, 270
Benz, Karl, 279
Benz & Cie, 279
Bezos, Jeff, 264
Big data, 224–225
Biometric devices, 128
Blame, for error, 162, 163
falsely blaming self, 61, 65–71, 167
misplaced, 61–62
Boats, control of, 21–22
Bookmarks, 16
Books, see e-books
Brainstorming, 226
British Design Council, 220
British Psychological Soc
iety, 150
Brynjolfsson, Erik, 286–287
Budgets, product development, 237, 240
Business strategy, lock-ins as, 143–144
Cabinet doors, lack of signifiers on, 134
Calendar program, using variety of formats, 70–71
Cameras
digital, 272, 274
merger with cell phones, 265
Cane, design of, 245
Capture slips, 174, 208
Carelman, Jacques, 2
Carpal tunnel syndrome, 278
Carver, Charles, 233
Catalogue d’objets introuvables (Carelman), 2
Causal elements, reflective level of processing and, 53
Causes of events
causal relations, 59–65
need to form explanations and, 57–59
Cell phones, 34, 200, 265, 280. See also Telephone
Celsius scale, conversion between Fahrenheit scale and, 101–102
Change, technology as cause of, 264–268, 282, 284–285
Checklists, 189–191
Chess-playing machine, 286–287
Child safety caps, 144
Chord keyboards, 279
Cisco, 273
Clocks, 249, 250
Clothing industry, yearly changes in fashion, 292
“Coffeepot for Masochists,” 2
Cognition and emotion, 49–55
conscious, 48, 49, 51–52, 53, 100–101
distributed, 287–288
integration of, 47, 48–55
behavioral level, 50, 51–55
design and levels of, 53–55
reflective level, 50, 53–55
stages of action and levels of processing, 55–56
subconscious, 44–49, 51–52, 173, 206–207
technology and enhanced human, 285–288
visceral level, 50–51, 53–55
Coins
confusion created by new design of, 79–82
types of knowledge and use of, 74–75, 77, 79–80
Communication
conceptual models and, 31–32
design and, 8–9, 73
technological change and, 283
Companies, conservatism of large, 269
Competition-driven design, 259–264
Complexity, 4–8
complicated vs., 247
using conceptual model to tame, 247–248
Conceptual models, 10, 25–37, 40, 72, 94, 96, 98, 121, 204, 298
communication and, 31–32
as story, 57–59
and Gulfs of Evaluation and Execution, 39, 40
mental models, 26, 31
providing meaning via, 99–100
to tame complexity, 247–248
for thermostat, 57–59, 68–69
Confirmation messages, 203–205
Conscious cognition, 48, 49, 51–52, 53, 100–101
knowledge-based behavior and, 184
mistakes and, 173
subconscious vs., 40, 42, 44–56, 67, 310
Constraints, 10, 73
applied to everyday objects, 132–141
to bridge Gulf of Execution, 40
cultural (see Cultural constraints)
on design process, 240–247
desired behavior and, 76, 141–145
knowledge in the world and, 123, 124–125
logical, 124–125, 130
memory and, 82–85
minimizing chance of inappropriate actions using, 67, 202–203
physical (see Physical constraints)
semantic, 124–125, 129–130
signifiers and, 132–135
Consumer economy, 291–293
Controls
activity-centered, 140–141
device-centered, 140
incorporating safety or security in, 256
mapping and design of, 21
segregating, 203
See also Switches
Conventions, cultural. See Cultural conventions
Cooperative problem-solving, 185
Cost
as design constraint, 6, 219, 230, 240, 241, 242, 245, 260, 294
feedback design and, 23–25, 68
Countersteering, 102–103
Creativity, 49, 64
Creeping featurism, 258, 261–264
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 55–56
Cultural constraints, 124–125, 128–129
on assembly of mechanical device, 85
behavior and, 76
cultural conventions and, 130–132, 146
standardization as, 248
Cultural conventions
behavior and, 76
as cultural constraints, 130–132, 146
destination-control elevators and change in, 146–149
faucet design and, 151–152
mapping and, 151–152
people’s responses to changes in, 149–150
perceived affordance and, 145
Cultural norms
confusion and lack of knowledge of, 134–135
conventions and standards, 130–132
Culture
impact of technology on, 285
mappings and, 22–23, 118–122
pace of change of, 282
Customers
observing would-be, 222–223, 225–226
quality and focus on, 264
See also Purchasers; Users
Cybermind, 112
Cyborgs, 284
Daily Mail (newspaper), 88
Daimler, 279
Data-driven behavior, 43
Data networks, 281–282
Dead man’s switch, 142–143
Decision gates, 234, 235
Declarative knowledge, 78
Declarative memory, 47, 97
Deliberate violations, 211
accidents and, 169–170
Dependence on technology, 285–287
Description, discrimination among choices and, 80–82
Description-similarity slips, 174, 175
Design
activity-centered, 231–234
areas of specialty in, 4–5, 9, 110, 302, 308
behavioral level and, 54, 55
challenge of, 34–36, 239–247
checklist, 191
choice of metaphor and, 120–122
coins, of, 79–82
communication and, 8–9, 73
competition-driven, 259–264
constraints as tools for, 85
correct requirements/specifications and, 229–230, 234–235
double-diamond diverge-converge model, 219, 220–221
as equalizing tool, 297
error and (see Error)
experience, 4–5, 9, 302, 307
faucet, 115–116, 150–155
flexibility in, 246–247
fundamental principles of, 71–73, 298. See also individual principles
implications of short-term memory for, 94–95
inclusive design, 243–247
industrial, 4–5, 9, 302, 306
interaction, 4–5, 9, 306, 309
interplay of technology and psychology in, 6–8
knowledge in the world and the head and, 76–77
legacy problem, 127, 266, 274
management of process, 34–35
memory-lapse mistakes and, 185–186
moral obligations of, 291–293
multidisciplinary approach to, 34–36, 238–239, 242–243
problem identification and, 217–220
providing meaningful structure in, 100
reflection and, 53–54
rule-based mistakes and, 182–183, 184
security and, 90–91, 255–257
success of, 293–294
superfluous features in, 291–293
theory vs. practice in, 236–239
universal (inclusive), 243–247
visceral responses and, 51
in the years 1988–2038, 282–288
See also Human-centered design (HCD)
Designers
advice for, 64–65
bridging Gulfs of Evaluation and Execution, 40
clients/customers, 240–241
conceptual model and, 31–32
engineers as, 6–8, 10
The Design of Future Things (Norman), 185
Design redundancy, 210
Design research
market research vs., 224–226
observation, 222–224
separating from product team, 238–239
Design team, 35
multidisciplinary, 34–36, 238–239, 242–243
needs of other groups in product process, 241–242
Design thinking, 219, 293–298
double-diamond diverge-converge model of design, 219, 220–221
See also Human-centered design (HCD)
Destination-control elevators, 146–149
Detection of error, 194–198
Development cycle, 260, 268–279
Device-centered controls, 140
Different (Moon), 262–263
Digital cameras, 272, 274
Digital picture frame, 272
Digital time, 252–254
Digital watch, 27–28, 33
Discoverability, 72, 298
affordances, 10–13, 19–20
conceptual models, 25–31
constraints, 10
design and, 3–4
feedback, 23–25
gesture-controlled devices and, 115–116
mappings, 20–23
signifiers, 13–20
Discrimination, rules for, 80–82
Displays, 68
description-similarity slips and, 175
mapping and design, 21
metaphor and interaction with, 120–122
smart, 121, 265–266
touch-sensitive, 21, 140, 268–269
Distributed cognition, 287–288
Do-goals, 233
Doors
affordances and, 3, 13–16, 18, 69, 132–135, 145
designing for security, 255
handles/hardware, 18, 133–134, 145
panic bars, 60, 133
poor design of, 1–3
signifiers and, 14–16, 18, 132–135
sliding, 16
Double-diamond diverge-converge model of design, 219, 220–221
Drill, goal of buying, 43–44
Driver’s safety device, 142–143
Driving
cell phone use while, 200
conventions of, 131–132
left-side vs. right-side, 122
as rule-based behavior, 181
stages of action in, 40–41
sterile periods during, 200–201
while drunk, 211
See also Automobiles
du Maurier, George, 270–271
Durable goods, 291
Duryea, 274, 280
Dvorak, August, 278