The China Mission

by Daniel Kurtz-Phelan

  297 Kennan had also speculated FRUS 1946 Vol. 9, 118–119.

  297 “compartmented” AW to Hutchin, 1 September 1946, Paul W. Caraway Papers, MHI.

  297 “lesser of two evils” Beal to Soong, 17 September 1946, T. V. Soong Papers, Hoover.

  298 disabuse hard-liners FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 444; push through some assistance FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 587; humanitarian efforts FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 1032; Total aid Westad, Decisive, 87; instructing congressional leaders Papers Vol. 5, 733; With Nationalist officials Papers Vol. 5, 744; stinginess of the new Congress FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 1023.

  298 “If you let this bunch” Beal, Marshall, 246.

  298 one Nationalist official FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 765; drive out “the FDR party” Westad, Decisive, 58.

  299 half of China’s imports Harry Harding, Sino-American Relations, 143; “new national humiliation” Sheng, Battling, 151; “new unequal treaty” Qing, From Allies, 52.

  299 He worried that Nationalist FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 558.

  299 Luce Herzstein, Luce, 53; Judd Franz Schurmann, Republican China, 328; Chennault Davies, Dragon, 370; anti-Communist officers Memorandum for the commanding general, 25 January 1946, GCM Papers 124/28, GCMRL.

  299 “wanted to cry” JM to Hellman, 29 October 1946, JM Papers 36, HSTL; “great experiment,” “Marshall feels” JM to Hellman, 19 November 1946, JM Papers 36, HSTL.

  300 it snowed Beal, Marshall, 304; New England town JHC to Betty Caughey, 30 November 1946, JHC Papers 1/21, GCMRL.

  300 evening with the Chiangs GCM appointment list, 28 November 1946, Marshall Mission Records 7, NARA; bridge, Chinese checkers JHC to Betty Caughey, 30 November 1946, JHC Papers 1/21, GCMRL; bits of English Beal, Marshall, 269; “great shine” Beal, Marshall, 177.

  300 Chiang learned CKS diary, 30 November 1946, Hoover; winter in Honolulu GCM to Ayres, 12 December 1946, GCM Papers 122/4, GCMRL; the news fed FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 572.

  300 “still daydreaming” CKS diary, 30 November 1946, Hoover; Chiang raged to his diary CKS diary, 20 November 1946, Hoover.

  301 “at the point of a gun” Stuart journal, 29 November 1946, John Leighton Stuart Papers, Hoover.

  301 Marshall resolved to wait FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 572.

  15. All of Chiang’s Horses and All of Chiang’s Men

  302 Marshall warned Madame Chiang Marshall interviews, 607.

  302 “calculated to put the Communists” Papers Vol. 6, 40; corruption kept so much tax revenue Westad, Decisive, 73; only in sowing chaos FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 577.

  302–303 To Marshall’s mind Papers Vol. 5, 750; made collapse more likely FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 603; “if China collapses” Beal, Marshall, 342; “spread like wildfire” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 620.

  303 Nationalists had squandered Papers Vol. 5, 755; “rottenness and corruption” GCM to HST, 6 September 1946, Secretary’s Files 160/10, HST Papers, HST; “hard-boiled element” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 542; “coolly calculated” Papers Vol. 5, 754.

  303 Chiang’s own advisers Eastman, Seeds, 123; Wedemeyer had recently written Chiang AW to CKS, 2 August 1946, AW Papers 81/2, Hoover.

  303–304 more brutally frank Beal, Marshall, 313; modern-day George Washington Marshall interviews, 607.

  304 foot tracing circles Beal, Marshall, 313; over an hour GCM to HST, 2 December 1946, Marshall Mission Records 2, NARA.

  304 Chiang brushed aside, assured Marshall GCM to HST, 2 December 1946, Marshall Mission Records 2, NARA; Communist guerrilla methods FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 581.

  304 military force was the only way GCM to HST, 2 December 1946, Marshall Mission Records 2, NARA; demanded a complete reconsideration Papers Vol. 5, 752; There was still time CKS diary, 7 December 1946, Hoover.

  304–305 reflected on Marshall’s selection CKS diary, 1 December 1945, Hoover; “Communist Party’s scheme” CKS diary, 31 December 1945, Hoover; “If I were to give up” CKS diary, 8 November 1946, Hoover.

  305 only to be thwarted Spence, To Change, 269; “customary willingness” Papers Vol. 6, 482; the real purpose of Chiang’s offer GCM to HST, 28 December 1946, Secretary’s Files 160/10, HST Papers, HSTL.

  305 “There are few harder stunts of statesmanship” Feis, China, 272; “crack the whip” Papers Vol. 6, 42; “if he gives us the opportunity” Papers Vol. 6, 41.

  305–306 Chiang had bet Beal, Marshall, 114; “serious error” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 604; “army is draining” Beal, Marshall, 293.

  306 consequential errors Westad, Decisive, 9.

  306 he was fond of the Generalissimo Papers Vol. 6, 381, Marshall interviews, 607, and Wilson, General Marshall, 377; aides were struck by their mutual graciousness John Hart Caughey Oral History, GCMRL; “personal integrity” Papers Vol. 6, 381; “always too late” Beal, Marshall, 339, and Stuart, Fifty Years, 278.

  306 “God never uses” Taylor, Generalissimo, 260; speak of democracy Tanner, Where, 166; “return to the people” CKS Constitution Presentation speech, 29 November 1946, JM Papers 1, HSTL; Confucian terms Tanner, Where, 47; two percent success Beal, Marshall, 247.

  307 this final act GCM to HST, 2 December 1946, Marshall Mission Records 2, NARA.

  307 three hours GCM to HST, 2 December 1946, Marshall Mission Records 2, NARA; Chiang reflected CKS diary, 1 December 1946, Hoover; Marshall reflected Final report, 405.

  307 Marshall had come to see stubbornness Papers Vol. 6, 31.

  307 “Along with the great problem” Stoler, George C. Marshall, 144.

  307 inflation surging Pantsov, Mao, 352; Shanghai cost-of-living China Weekly Review, 30 November 1946, GCM Papers 123/33, GCMRL; hoarded rice Peck, Two Kinds, 107; workers went on strike Westad, Decisive, 76; “We are begging food” Westad, Decisive, 100.

  308 unsupportable expectations Westad, Decisive, 65.

  308 American financial adviser Arthur Young Oral History, HSTL; “ancient evils” Stuart, Fifty Years, 277; Mandate of Heaven New York Times 7 February 1947, and Melby, Mandate, 241.

  308 former aide sent Marshall Kinkead to Chamberlin, 19 April 1946, GCM Papers 123/8, GCMRL; “all of Chiang’s horses” New Yorker 4 May 1946.

  308 “yours and yours alone” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 583.

  309 statements to journalists Summary of telegrams, 20 November 1946, Naval Aide Files 22/3, HST Papers, HSTL; Planeload after planeload of Communists JM diary, 14 November 1946, JM Papers 1, HSTL.

  309 Zhou’s demands FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 591.

  309 “beyond our reach” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 594; hope that his presence GCM to HST, 28 December 1946, Secretary’s Files 160/10, HST Papers, HSTL; wet, windy, and cold Papers, Vol. 5, 759.

  309 She did not know how long Papers Vol. 5, 759.

  309–310 Marshall pestered aides JHC to KTM, 20 September 1946, JHC Papers 1/8, GCMRL; he joined Madame Chiang for a long walk GCM to Madame CKS, 5 February 1947, GCM Papers 60/55, GCMRL; strenuous enough JHC to Betty Caughey, 10 December 1946, JHC Papers 2/11, GCMRL; “lost without her” JM diary, 8 November 1946, JM Papers 1, HSTL.

  310 another flurry of rumors New York Times 9 December 1946; barrage of phone calls Chamberlin to JHC, 10 December 1946, JHC Papers 1/7, GCMRL; Chinese newspapers, Caughey instructed Connors to Betty Caughey, 21 December 1946, JHC Papers 1/14, GCMRL.

  310 “The General came out here” JM to Hellman, 10 December 1946, JM Papers 36, HSTL.

  310 “It appears now very likely that I should return” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 624.

  310 a long message by hand Papers Vol. 5, 776; “see the handwriting” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 622.

  311 Luce Carter to GCM, 3 December 1946, Marshall Mission Records 2, NARA; negotiation unnecessary Papers Vol. 5, 757; “If the U.S. does not openly” Time 16 September 1946; “shallow, if not completely biased” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 600.

  311 “If George Marshall remains in China” Bayne to Soong, 21 December 1946, W. Walton Butterworth Papers 1/7, GCMRL; Marshall sensed Beal, Marshall, 329; “seriously weaken my hand” Papers Vol. 5, 756.

  311 “Chiang Kai-shek’s brand of democracy” Fairbank, Chinabound, 320.


  311–312 when it arrived in Nanjing JM to Hellman, 9 November 1946, JM Papers 36, HSTL; “We are left as the patrons” White, Thunder, 317–318.

  312 White on Marshall New Republic 16 December 1946.

  312 Acheson wrote Marshall FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 609; “impartial observers” Papers Vol. 5, 760; “vest pocket of George Marshall” New Republic 16 December 1946.

  312 Truman policy statement White Paper 694.

  312 Wits in the American embassy had taken to standing JM to Hellman, 6 December 1946, JM Papers 36, HSTL.

  313 little of the hope or good feeling JM to Hellman, 25 December 1946, JM Papers 36, HSTL; Katherine’s absence JHC to KTM, 19 December 1946, JHC Papers 1/8, GCMRL; coming down with a cold Beal, Marshall, 326; fruit and candy Madame CKS to GCM, December 1946, GCM Papers 122/20, GCMRL.

  313 “If America wants” New York Times 20 December 1946; “working hand in glove” Press clipping, 14 December 1946, JHC Papers 1/3, GCMRL; Fliers scattered FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 586; Communist outlets compared Americans FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 641.

  313 Chiang repeated his request FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 621; Marshall’s advice FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 624; “What is important” CKS diary, 19 December 1946, Hoover.

  313 “Their publicity campaign” Papers Vol. 5, 755.

  314 “destroy the foundation” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 555; “useless to expect” GCM to HST, 23 November 1946, Marshall Mission Records 2, NARA; speculate offhandedly FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 619.

  314 “I have been using” Papers Vol. 5, 756; “genuine democratic document” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 539.

  314 biggest gathering of its kind Dikötter, Age, 22; draft constitution Draft constitution, JM Papers 1, HSTL.

  315 “what happens when” Papers Vol. 6, 37; “constructive opposition” Papers Vol. 5, 744; “I did not expect the Kuomintang” Papers Vol. 5, 745; “cannot reform itself” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 542.

  315 Nationalist repression Papers Vol. 5, 744.

  315 “It is an ugly sight” JM to Hellman, 17 December 1946, JM Papers 36, HSTL.

  315–316 he had canceled plans JHC to Sims, 24 December 1946, GCM Papers 122, GCMRL; Christmas party JHC to KTM, 27 December 1946, JHC Papers 1/8, GCMRL, and JHC to Betty Caughey, 24 December 1946, JHC Papers 2/11, GCMRL; party broke up Beal, Marshall, 333.

  316 Marshall declined an invitation to attend Invitation to attend National Assembly, 25 December 1946, GCM Papers 123/24, GCMRL; “fake constitution” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 678; Chiang had stood firm FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 666; “collection of words” GCM to HST, 28 December 1946, Secretary’s Files 160/10, HST Papers, HSTL; feeling of accomplishment Beal, Marshall, 335.

  316–317 “Yanks, go home” Xixiao Guo, “The Anticlimax of an Ill-Starred Sino-American Encounter,” 230; “Get out you beasts” Military intelligence review, 9 January 1947, Naval Aide Files 19/4, HST Papers, HSTL; Nationalist authorities ordered police protection Westad, Decisive, 101; “Every major turning” White, Thunder, 58.

  317 “the Commies don’t have a chance” Belden, China Shakes, 9; spears, sickles, pig knives Belden, China Shakes, 351; Communist units were in retreat Westad, Decisive, 47; Chiang’s forces had claimed Lew, Third, 55; 80 percent, 15 percent Westad, Decisive, 69; “fight like babies” Belden, China Shakes, 351.

  317 irritations of Marshall’s mission Tanner, Where, 82; Chiang’s plan Lew, Third, 56.

  317 no longer placed Beal, Marshall, 293; extending his writ Christopher P. C. Chung, “Drawing the U-Shaped Line.”

  318 “You can sometimes win” Marshall interviews, 387.

  318 “faulty and optimistic” Papers, Vol. 5, 768.

  318 In his assessment, Chiang’s army Papers Vol. 5, 761; “The military position” Military intelligence review, 7 November 1946, Naval Aide Files 19/2, HST Papers, HSTL.

  318 “China is simply too vast” AW to Soong, 10 August 1946, AW Papers 83/7, Hoover.

  319 American vehicles, Antitank guns, snow boots Victor Shiu Chiang Cheng, “Modern War on an Ancient Battlefield,” 45–46; “We do not know how much the Government” Papers Vol. 6, 41; his sources suggested Papers Vol. 6, 372; Communist troops sang Barrett, Dixie, 91.

  319 Nationalist general estimated Taylor, Generalissimo, 359; Chiang continued to send Papers Vol. 6, 483.

  319 “worst advised military commander” Papers Vol. 6, 130; misleading assessments Transcript of GCM comments, Conference on Problems of United States Policy in China, Secretary’s Files 152/4, HST Papers, HSTL; embassy analysis Assessment of U.S. Military Aid Program Toward China, 5 July 1947, W. Walton Butterworth Papers 1/7, GCMRL.

  320 thwarted coordination and hoarded resources Westad, Decisive, 149; “corruption and degeneracy” Lloyd E. Eastman, “Who Lost China?,” 663; “Jeeps had a habit” Papers Vol. 6, 483; better treatment Intelligence summary, 1 June 1946, AW Papers 86/3, Hoover; In Manchuria, residents started to complain Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China, 471.

  320 Marshall had pointed out FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 447; Chiang’s own experience Mitter, Forgotten, 148; “luring the enemy in deep” Pantsov, Mao, 268; “gallant peasant army” Qing, From Allies, 90; “knew precisely” White, Thunder 229.

  320–321 “dark ages of warlordism” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 635; total Communist victory Steven I. Levine, “A New Look at American Mediation in the Chinese Civil War,” 374; collapse was a real possibility Papers Vol. 5, 768; “General Marshall concluded” Shepley to HST, 26 February 1946, GCM Papers 124/28, GCMRL.

  321 “father of the country” GCM to HST, 28 December 1946, Secretary’s Files 160/10, HST Papers, HSTL.

  321 Marshall message to Truman GCM to HST, 28 December 1946, Secretary’s Files 160/10, HST Papers, HSTL.

  16. Into the Fire

  322 Caughey was awakened JHC to Betty Caughey, 4 January 1947, JHC Papers 2/11, GCMRL; “so depressed” JHC to Betty Caughey, 24 December 1946, JHC Papers 2/11, GCMRL; still did not know Jeans, Marshall Mission, 189.

  322 Marshall birthday party Beal, Marshall, 344, and GCMRL photographs; a relapse of his lingering cold JHC to Betty Caughey, 4 January 1947, JHC Papers 2/11, GCMRL.

  323 “anti-U.S.-brutality” Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom, Student Protests in Twentieth-Century China, 239; worried about what might happen JHC to Betty Caughey, 4 January 1947, JHC Papers 2/11, GCMRL.

  323 building had previously belonged Melby, Mandate, 214; “Bloody GI” New York Times 4 January 1947; circuitous routes JHC to Betty Caughey, 4 January 1947, JHC Papers 2/11, GCMRL; Crowds screamed Robert Shaffer, “A Rape in Beijing,” 38; Stuart met New York Times 4 January 1947; blown out of proportion South China Morning Post 7 January 1947; “Dreyfus case” Shaffer, “A Rape,” 59; Communist setup JHC to Betty Caughey, 4 January 1947, JHC Papers 2/11, GCMRL.

  323 In a radio broadcast New York Times 1 January 1947.

  323 “struggle to the death” New York Times 1 January 1947; rape of Shen Chung Jon W. Huebner, “Chinese Anti-Americanism,” 121.

  323–324 The popular outrage Military intelligence review, 9 January 1947, Naval Aide Files 19/4, HST Papers, HSTL; just the kind of sentiment Xixiao, “Anticlimax,” 240; long recognized that patriotic students Westad, Decisive, 140; “Confused, frustrated and faithless” New York Times 5 January 1947.

  324 “America is the very best” Taylor, Generalissimo, 8; they were instead cursing the United States Wasserstrom, Student, 254; Shanghai newspaper Huebner, “Chinese,” 122; Canadian shopkeepers Xixiao, “Anticlimax,” 242.

  324 “Widespread resentment” FRUS 1947 Vol. 7, 15; “successful in stirring” Papers Vol. 5, 755; “naïve” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 664.

  324 endless stories Gallicchio, Scramble, 134; drunk sailor Xixiao, “Anticlimax,” 227; “city tigers” Joseph K. S. Yick in Bland, George C. Marshall’s, 375; residents hinted darkly Spector, In the Ruins, 58; negotiated a deal Huebner, “Chinese,” 118.

  324–325 “fund of Chinese good-will” Final report, 8; “tossed to the winds” GCM to Milholland, 2 February 1946, GCM Papers 123/22, GCMRL.

 
; 325 “lost an amount of goodwill” JM to Hellman, 24 November 1946, JM Papers 36, HSTL.

  325 telegram from Secretary of State Byrnes Byrnes to GCM, 3 January 1947, Marshall Mission Records 10, NARA.

  325 Truman wanted Marshall back FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 681.

  325 “Your country is fortunate” Carter to GCM, 30 December 1946, GCM Papers 124/37, GCMRL; “the Chinese have fallen” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 549.

  326 “both so frequently” Papers Vol. 5, 755.

  326 If Democrats and Republicans South China Morning Post 9 April 1946; arguing about their own civil war FRUS 1946 Vol. 9, 582.

  326 “all should combine” FRUS 1946 Vol. 9, 464.

  327 embassy reassessment FRUS 1947 Vol. 7, 7–12.

  327 “I fully understand” Papers Vol. 5, 769.

  327 time the public announcement Draft White House press release, 6 January 1947, Secretary’s Files 160/10, HST Papers, HSTL; sink in for a few days Papers Vol. 5, 769.

  328 accepted invitations Burns to GCM, 3 January 1946, GCM Papers 122, GCMRL; stop forwarding mail GCM to Carter, 4 January 1947, GCM Papers 124/38, GCMRL; delayed packing JHC to Betty Caughey, 8 January 1947, JHC Papers 1/7, GCMRL; games of darts Connors to JHC, 8 January 1947, JHC Papers 1/15, GCMRL.

  328 dreary weekend JM to Hellman, 5 January 1946, JM Papers 36, HSTL; rainy and windy Beal, Marshall, 346.

  328 past American slights GCM-CKS meeting notes, 6 January 1947, Marshall Mission Records 5, NARA.

  329 “courage and patriotism” FRUS 1946 Vol. 10, 687.

  329 “almost impossible to deal with the Communists” Beal, Marshall, 340.

  329 saw T. V. Soong GCM-Soong meeting notes, 7 January 1947, Marshall Mission Records 23, NARA.

  329 his driver GCM commendation letter, 7 January 1947, GCM Papers 60/35, GCMRL; a group of children Time 20 January 1947; gift from the embassy Lee to GCM, 12 August 1946, GCM Papers 123/11, GCMRL.