The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine

by James Le Fanu

  23.See Note 1.

  24.Ibid.

  25.R. G. Edwards, ‘Studies on Human Conception’, AJOG, 1973, Vol. 117, pp. 587–601. See also R. G. Edwards and P. C. Steptoe, ‘Control of Human Ovulation, Fertilisation and Implantation’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 1974, Vol. 67, pp. 932–6.

  26.P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards, ‘Reimplantation of a Human Embryo With Subsequent Tubal Pregnancy’, The Lancet, 1976, Vol. 1, pp. 880–2.

  27.P. C. Steptoe and R. G. Edwards, ‘Birth After the Reimplantation of a Human Embryo’, The Lancet, 1978, Vol. 2, p. 366. See also R. G. Edwards, P. C. Steptoe and J. M. Purdy, ‘Establishing Full-term Human Pregnancy Using Cleaving Embryos Grown In Vitro’, British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 1980, Vol. 87, pp. 737–68.

  28.A. O. Trounson et al., ‘Pregnancies in Humans by Fertilisation in Vitro and Embryo Transfer in the Controlled Ovulatory Cycle’, Science, 1981, Vol. 212, pp. 681–2. See also Howard W. Jones et al., ‘Three Years of in Vitro Fertilisation’, Fertility and Sterility, 1984, Vol. 42, pp. 826–34; R. Fleming and J. R. T. Coutts, ‘Induction of Multiple Follicular Development for IVF Assisted Human Conception’, British Medical Bulletin, 1990, Vol. 46, pp. 596–616.

  29.P. C. Steptoe, R. G. Edwards and D. E. Walters, ‘Observations of 767 Clinical Pregnancies and 500 Births After Human in Vitro Fertilisation’, Human Reproduction, 1986, Vol. 1, pp. 89–94.

  12: 1984: Helicobacter – The Cause of Peptic Ulcer

  GENERAL READING

  C. S. Goodwin, ‘Historical and Microbiological Perspectives’, Helicobacter Pylori Infection, eds T. C. Northfield et al. (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1993).

  Basil Hirschowitz, ‘History of Acid-peptic Diseases’, The Growth of Gastroenterological Knowledge During the Twentieth Century, ed. Joseph Kirsner (Lea & Febiger, 1994).

  Robert J. Hopkins, ‘Helicobacter Pylori: The Missing Link in Perspective’, AJM, 1994, Vol. 97, pp. 265–77.

  Howard M. Spiro, ‘Peptic Ulcer: Moynihan’s or Marshall’s Disease’, The Lancet, 1998, Vol. 352, pp. 645–6.

  REFERENCES

  1.Barry J. Marshall et al., ‘Attempt to Fulfil Koch’s Postulates for Pyloric Campylobacter’, Medical Journal of Australia, 1985, Vol. 142, pp. 436–9.

  2.Lawrence K. Altman, Who Goes First? (Thorsons, 1988).

  3.R. A. Giannela et al., ‘Gastric Acid Barrier to Ingested Microorganisms in Man’, Gut, 1972, Vol. 13, pp. 251–6.

  4.F. Goldberg, Family Influences in Psychosomatic Illness (Tavistock Press, 1958).

  5.S. Wolff and H. G. Wolff, Human Gastric Function (Oxford: OUP, 1943).

  6.W. Porter et al., ‘Some Experimental Observations on the Gastrointestinal Lesions in Behaviourally Conditioned Monkeys’, Psychosomatic Medicine, 1958, Vol. 20, p. 379.

  7.Albert Mendeloff, ‘What Has Been Happening to Duodenal Ulcers?’, Gastroenterology, 1974, Vol. 67, pp. 1020–2.

  8.J. Robin Warren, ‘Unidentified Curved Bacilli in Gastric Epithelium in Active Chronic Gastritis’, The Lancet, 1983, Vol. 1, pp. 1273–5.

  9.B. J. Marshall, ‘History of the Discovery of C. Pylori’, C. Pylori in Gastritis and Peptic Ulcer Disease, ed. M. J. Blaser (New York: Igaku-Shoin, 1989).

  10.B. J. Marshall and J. Robin Warren, ‘Unidentified Curved Bacilli in the Stomach of Patients With Gastritis and Peptic Ulceration’, The Lancet, 1984, Vol. 1, pp. 1311–14.

  11.C. S. Goodwin, ‘Historical and Microbiological Perspectives’.

  12.K. T. Wormsley, ‘Relapsed Duodenal Ulcer’, BMJ, 1986, Vol. 293, p. 150.

  13.E. A. J. Rauws and G. N. J. Tytgat, ‘Cure of Duodenal Ulcer Associated with Eradication of H.Pylori’, The Lancet, 1990, Vol. 335, pp. 1233–5.

  14.M. Stolte, ‘Healing Gastric Malt Lymphomas by Eradicating H. Pylori’, The Lancet, 1993, Vol. 2, p. 568.

  15.Bruce E. Dunne, ‘Pathogenic Mechanisms in H. Pylori Infection’, Gastroenterology Clinics of North America, 1993, Vol. 22, pp. 43–59. See also G. N. J. Tytgat et al., ‘H.Pylori Infection and Duodenal Ulcer Disease’, Gastroenterology Clinics of North America, 1993, Vol. 22, pp. 127–41.

  16.J. V. Joossens, ‘Diet and the Environment in the Etiology of Gastric Cancers’, Frontiers of Gastrointestinal Cancer, ed. R. H. Riddle (New York: Elsevier, 1984), pp. 167–283.

  17.David Forman and Richard Doll, ‘Nitrates and Nitrites in Gastric Cancer in Great Britain’, Nature, 1985, Vol. 313, pp. 620–5.

  PART I: THE RISE

  2: Clinical Science: A New Ideology for Medicine

  GENERAL READING

  Christopher C. Booth, ‘Clinical Research’, Historical Perspectives on the Role of the MRC, ed. J. Austoker and L. Bryder (Oxford: OUP, 1989).

  Irving Ladimer (ed.), Clinical Investigation in Medicine: Legal, Ethical and Moral Aspects (Oxford: OUP, 1960).

  REFERENCES

  1.Christopher C. Booth, ‘Medical Science and Technology at the Royal Postgraduate Medical School: The First Fifty Years’, BMJ, 1985, Vol. 291, pp. 1771–9.

  2.E. G. L. Bywaters, ‘Crush Injuries With Impairment of Renal Function’, BMJ, 22 March 1941, pp. 427–35.

  3.J. H. Dible, John McMichael and S. P. V. Sherlock, ‘Pathology of Acute Hepatitis: Aspiration Biopsy Studies of Epidemic, Arsenotherapy and Serum Jaundice’, The Lancet, 1943, Vol. 2, pp. 402–8.

  4.Henry Barcroft and John McMichael, ‘Post-haemorrhagic Fainting: Study by Cardiac Output and Forearm Flow’, The Lancet, 1944, Vol. 1, pp. 489–90.

  5.Sir Thomas Horder, Munk’s Roll (Royal College of Physicians, 1968).

  6.Mervyn Horder, The Little Genius: A Memoir of the First Lord Horder (Duckworth, 1966).

  7.Paul White, My Life in Medicine: An Autobiographical Memoir (Boston, MA: Gambit, 1971), quoted in Arthur Hollman, Sir Thomas Lewis (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1996).

  8.Arthur Hollman, ‘Sir Thomas Lewis: Clinical Scientist and Cardiologist, 1881–1945’, Journal of Medical Biography, 1994, Vol. 2, pp. 63–70.

  9.Christopher C. Booth, ‘Clinical Research’, Historical Perspectives on the Role of the MRC, ed. J. Austoker and L. Bryder.

  10.Renée C. Fox and Judith P. Swazey, The Courage to Fail: A Social View of Organ Transplants and Dialysis (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1978).

  11.See Note 1.

  12.M. H. Pappworth, Human Guinea Pigs (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967).

  13.M. H. Pappworth, A Primer of Medicine (Butterworth, 1963).

  14.W. H. Ogilvie, ‘Whither Medicine?’, The Lancet, 1952, Vol. 2, p. 820.

  3: A Cornucopia of New Drugs

  GENERAL READING

  Karl H. Beyer, The Discovery, Development and Delivery of New Drugs (SP Medical & Scientific Books, 1978).

  Frank H. Clarke, How Modern Medicines Are Discovered (Futura, 1973).

  R. D. Mann, A Textbook of Pharmaceutical Medicine (Carnforth: Parthenon, 1993).

  M. J. Parnham and J. Bruinvels, Discoveries in Pharmacology, Vols 1–3 (New York: Elsevier, 1986).

  David Schwartzman, Innovation in the Pharmaceutical Industry (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976).

  Walter Sneader, Drug Discovery (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1985).

  ——, Drug Prototypes and Their Exploitation (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1996).

  M. Weatherall, In Search of a Cure (Oxford: OUP, 1990).

  REFERENCES

  1.Paul E. Beeson, ‘Changes in Medical Therapy During the Past Half-century’, Medicine, 1980, Vol. 59, pp. 79–99.

  2.William Paton, ‘The Evolution of Therapeutics: Osler’s Therapeutic Nihilism and the Changing Pharmacopoeia’, Journal of the Royal College of Physicians, 1979, Vol. 13, pp. 74ff.

  3.Gerhard Domagk, ‘Ein Beitrag zur Chemotherapie der bakteriellen infektionen’, Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, 1936, Vol. 61, pp. 250–3.

  4.J. Trefouel et al., Comptes Rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1937, Vol. 120, pp. 756–8.

  5.L. Colebrook et al., ‘Treatment of Human Puerperal Infections With Prontos
il’, The Lancet, 1936, Vol. 2, pp. 1279–85. See also Irvine Loudon, ‘Puerperal Fever, the Streptococcus and the Sulphonomides, 1911–45’, BMJ, 1987, Vol. 295, pp. 485–91.

  6.L. B. Garrod, ‘The Eclipse of the Haemolytic Streptococcus’, BMJ, 16 June 1979, pp. 1607–8. See also Floyd W. Denny, ‘A 45-Year Perspective on Streptococcus and Rheumatic Fever’, Clinical Infectious Diseases, 1994, Vol. 19, pp. 110–22. For an account of someone dying from rheumatic fever, see Burton Korelitz, ‘A Harvard Medical Student Chronicles Its Fatal Illness’, Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, 1995, Vol. 62, pp. 226–34.

  7.D. D. Woods, ‘The Relation of PABA to the Mechanism of Action of Sulphanilamide’, British Journal of Experimental Pathology, 1940, Vol. 21, pp. 74–90. See also D. D. Woods, ‘The Biochemical Mode of Action of the Sulphonamide Drugs’, Journal of General Microbiology, 1962, Vol. 29, pp. 687–702.

  8.Gertrude B. Elion, ‘The Purine Path to Chemotherapy’, Science, 7 April 1989, pp. 41–7. See also George H. Hitchings, ‘Chemotherapy and Comparative Biochemistry’, Cancer Research, 1969, Vol. 29, pp. 1895–903; D. W. Woolley, ‘The Antimetabolite Revolution in Pharmacology’, Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 1959, pp. 556–69.

  9.R. O. Roblin and J. W. Clapp, Journal of the American Chemistry Society, 1950, Vol. 72, p. 4890.

  10.Carl H. Beyer, ‘Discoveries of Thiazides: Where Biology and Chemistry Meet’, Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, Spring 1977, pp. 410–19.

  11.G. W. Anderson et al., Journal of the American Chemistry Society, 1945, Vol. 67, p. 2197.

  12.R. C. Cochrane, ‘The Chemotherapy of Leprosy’, BMJ, 1952, Vol. 2, p. 1220.

  13.J. C. Henquin, ‘The Fiftieth Anniversary of Hypoglycaemic Sulphonamides’, Diabetologia, 1992, Vol. 25, pp. 907–12.

  14.Walter Sneader, Drug Prototypes and Their Exploitation.

  15.Leonard Engel, Medicine Makers of Kalamazoo (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961).

  4: Technology’s Triumphs

  GENERAL READING

  James M. Edmonson, ‘History of the Instruments for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy’, Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, 1991, Vol. 37, pp. S27–54.

  Charles J. Filipi, ‘Historical Review: Diagnostic Laparoscopy and Beyond’, Surgical Laparoscopy, ed. Karl A. Zucker (St Louis, MO: Quality Medical Publishing Inc., 1991).

  William S. Haubrick, ‘Gastrointestinal Endoscopy’, The Growth of Gastroenterologic Knowledge During the Twentieth Century, ed. Joseph B. Kirsner (Lea & Febiger, 1994).

  Bryan Jennett, High Technology Medicine: Benefits and Burdens (Oxford: OUP, 1986).

  W. Y. Lau, ‘History of Endoscopic and Laparoscopic Surgery’, World Journal of Surgery, 1997, Vol. 21, pp. 444–53.

  Grzegorz Litynski, Highlights in the History of Laparoscopy (Berlin: Barbara Bernert-Verlag, 1996).

  Stanley Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978).

  David Rosin (ed.), Minimal Access General Surgery (Abingdon: Radcliffe Medical Press, 1994).

  James W. Smith, ‘Microsurgery: Review of the Literature and Discussion of Microtechniques’, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 1966, Vol. 37, pp. 227–43.

  Susumu Tamai, ‘History of Microsurgery’, Microsurgery, 1993, Vol. 14, pp. 6–13.

  J. E. A. Wickham, ‘Future Developments in Minimally Invasive Surgery’, BMJ, 1994, Vol. 308, pp. 193–6.

  REFERENCES

  1.Bryan Jennett, High Technology Medicine: Benefits and Burdens.

  2.J. Anthony Seibert, ‘One Hundred Years of Medical Diagnostic Imaging Technology’, Health Physics, 1995, Vol. 69, pp. 695–719. See also G. N. Handsfield, ‘Computerised Transverse Axial Scanning’, British Journal of Radiology, 1973, Vol. 46, pp. 1016–22;F. H. Doyle et al., ‘Imaging of the Brain by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance’, The Lancet, 1981, Vol. 2, pp. 53–7.

  3.See references for chapters ‘1955: Open-Heart Surgery – The Last Frontier’ and ‘1961: New Hips for Old’.

  4.Susumu Tamai, ‘History of Microsurgery’, Microsurgery, 1993, Vol. 15, pp. 6–13. See also James W. Smith, ‘Microsurgery: Review of the Literature and Discussion of Microtechniques’, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 1966, Vol. 37, pp. 227–43.

  5.Howard P. House, ‘The Evolution of Otosclerosis Surgery’, Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America, 1993, Vol. 26, pp. 323–33. See also C. O. Nylen, ‘The Microscope in Aural Surgery: Its First Use and Later Development’, Acta Otolaryngolica Supplement, 1954, Vol. 116, pp. 226–40.

  6.Harold Ridley, ‘Intra-ocular Acrylic Lenses’, Transactions of the Ophthalmological Society of the United Kingdom, 1951, Vol. 71, pp. 617–21. See also Harold Ridley, ‘Intra-ocular Acrylic Lenses’, British Journal of Ophthalmology, 1952, Vol. 36, pp. 113–22; Harold Ridley, ‘The Story of Acrylic Lenses, 1949–62’, Transactions of the Ophthalmological Society of Australia, 1962, Vol. 15, pp. 53–61.

  7.Daniel Albert, The History of Ophthalmology (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996).

  8.Ch’en Chung-Y et al., ‘Salvage of the Forearm Following Complete Traumatic Amputation’, Chinese Medical Journal, 1963, Vol. 82, pp. 632–8.

  9.Julius S. Jacobson et al., ‘Microsurgery as an Aid to Middle Cerebral Artery Endarterectomy’, Journal of Neurosurgery, 1962, Vol. 19, pp. 108–15. See also W. M. Lougheed, ‘The Diploscope in Intracranial Aneurysm Surgery: Results in Forty Patients’, Canadian Journal of Surgery, 1969, Vol. 12, pp. 75–82; Eugene S. Flamm, ‘Cerebral Aneurysms and Subarachnoid Haemorrhage’, A History of Neurosurgery, ed. Samuel H. Greenblatt (Oxford: Blackwell/American Association of Neurosurgeons, 1997); Steven T. Onesti, ‘Cerebral Revascularization: A Review’, Neurosurgery, 1989, Vol. 25, pp. 618–23; J. Lawrence Pool, ‘The Development of Modern Intracranial Aneurysm Surgery’, Neurosurgery, 1977, Vol. 1, pp. 233–7.

  10.Antony F. Wallace, The Progress of Plastic Surgery: An Introductory History (Oxford: Wilhelm A. Meeuws, 1982). See also Sir Archibald McIndoe, ‘Total Reconstruction of the Burnt Face’, British Journal of Plastic Surgery, 1983, Vol. 36, pp. 410–20; Y. Godwin, ‘Time is the Healer: McIndoe’s Guinea Pigs Fifty Years On’, British Journal of Plastic Surgery, 1997, Vol. 50, pp. 88–98.

  11.Rollin K. Daniel and G. Ian Taylor, ‘Distant Transfer of an Island Flap by Macrovascular Anastomoses’, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 1973, Vol. 52, pp. 1111–17. See also Bernard M. O’Brien et al., ‘Successful Transfer of a Large Island Flap from the Groin to the Foot by Microvascular Anastomoses’, Plastic Reconstructive Surgery, 1973, Vol. 52, pp. 271–6.

  12.James G. Gow, ‘Harold Hopkins and Optical Systems for Urology: An Appreciation’, Urology 1998, Vol. 52, pp. 152–7.

  13.H. H. Hopkins and N. S. Kapany, ‘A Flexible Fibrescope, Using Static Scanning’, Nature, 1954, Vol. 173, pp. 39–40. See also Steven F. Dierdorf, ‘The Physics of Fibreoptic Endoscopy’, Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, 1995, Vol. 62, pp. 1–9; William S. Haubrich, ‘The Advent and Evolution of Endoscopy’, Gastroenterology, 1997, Vol. 117, pp. 591–3.

  14.Basil Hirschowitz, ‘A Personal History of the Fibrescope’, Gastroenterology, 1979, Vol. 76, pp. 864–9. See also Basil Hirschowitz, ‘Endoscopic Examination of the Stomach and Duodenal Cap With a Fibrescope’, The Lancet, 1961, Vol. 1, pp. 1074–7; Basil Hirschowitz, ‘Fibreoptics and Research in the Last Twenty-five Years’, Endoscopy, 1980 (supplement), pp. 13–18.

  15.Christopher B. Williams, ‘Flexible Endoscopy at St Mark’s’, Contributions from St Mark’s Hospital, London, ed. Charles Mann (Nymphenburg, 1988). See also J. Loren Pritcher, ‘Therapeutic Endoscopy and Bleeding Ulcers: A Historical Overview’, Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, 1990, Vol. 36, pp. S2–S7.

  16.J. Gow, personal communication, 1997.

  17.H. H. Hopkins, ‘The Modern Urological Endoscope’, Handbook of Urological Endoscopy, eds J. G. Gow and H. H. Hopkins (Churchill-Livingstone, 1978).

  18.K. Semm, ‘History’, Operative Gynaecologic Endoscopy, ed. J. S. Sanfilippo (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1989).

  19.Patrick C. Steptoe, Laparoscopy in Gynaecolog
y (E & S Livingstone, 1967).

  20.W. Y. Lau, ‘History of Endoscopic and Laparoscopic Surgery’, World Journal of Surgery, 1997, Vol. 21, pp. 444–53.

  21.Brereton B. Strafford, ‘A Historical Review of Shoulder Arthroscopy’, Orthopaedic Clinics of North America, 1993, Vol. 24, pp. 1–3.

  22.H. Stammberger, ‘The Evolution of Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery’, ENT Journal, 1994, Vol. 73, pp. 451–5. See also Steven S. Sachs, ‘Fibreoptics in Otolaryngology’, Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, 1995, Vol. 62, pp. 47–9.

  23.‘Advances in Laparoscopic Urology: History and Development of Procedures’, Urology, 1994, Vol. 43, pp. 420–7.

  24.M. L. Clark, ‘Upper Intestinal Endoscopy’, The Lancet, 1985, Vol. 1, p. 629. See also Howard M. Spiro, ‘My Kingdom for a Camera: Some Comments on Medical Technology’, NEJM, 14 November 1974, pp. 1070–2.

  5: The Mysteries of Biology

  REFERENCES

  1.Selman Waksman, ‘The Role of Antibiotics in Nature’, Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 1961, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 271–2.

  2.Ronald Bentley, ‘Secondary Metabolites Play Primary Role in Human Affairs’, Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 1997, Vol. 40, pp. 197–219. See also Ronald Bentley, ‘Microbial Secondary Metabolites Play Important Roles in Medicine: Prospects for Discovery of New Drugs’, Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 1997, Vol. 40, pp. 365–93; D. Chadwick (ed.), Secondary Metabolites: Their Function in Evolution, Ciba Foundation Symposium 171 (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1992).