The Eagle Has Landed: The Story of Apollo 11

by Jeffrey Smith

  In the 1990s, the Hubble space telescope was launched into orbit from the payload section of a space shuttle. Three years later, a shuttle crew repaired the telescope’s focusing mechanism, which dramatically improved image quality. Orbiting 375 miles above Earth, Hubble has enabled observers to view 40 billion new galaxies and observe a black hole for the first time. Without having to penetrate the haze of Earth’s atmosphere, the tractor trailer truck-sized telescope can magnify distant objects more clearly than any landbased instrument. The Hubble telescope operates in conjunction with the European Space Agency, and is radio controlled from the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland.

  The James Webb space telescope is scheduled to be launched no later than 2018. Twenty-one feet-wide and 100 times more powerful than Hubble, the Webb telescope is projected to cost 6.8 billion dollars by the time it is fully constructed.

  The United States and Russia remain parties to the Outer Space Treaty. The pact specifies that no country can claim ownership of the Moon, which is under the same jurisdiction as international waters. The treaty also restricts the use of the Moon for peaceful purposes, banning the installation of military stations and weapons of mass destruction.

  In April of 2001, American businessman Dennis Tito paid 20 million dollars to fly to the International Space Station aboard a Russian Soyuz spacecraft, inaugurating the private-sector’s involvement in space exploration. On June 21, 2004, Space Ship One, piloted by Mike Melvill, became the first private vehicle to carry a human into space. Private funding will be an essential component of future space exploration, but space enthusiasts worry that free market investors will be unwilling to spend the billions of dollars needed each year necessary to match NASA’s level of investment. Private-sector critics are also concerned about the safety and reliability of rockets and spacecraft designed without NASA’s supervision.

  While seeking active collaboration with the private-sector, NASA has established strict guidelines for space exploration. To preserve historical integrity, the space agency has warned future lunar explorers not to disrupt the relics from the six Apollo Moon-landing missions.

  On May 22, 2012, the California-based company SpaceX utilized its Falcon 9 rocket to launch an unmanned Dragon capsule into orbit. The 180-feet tall rocket, weighing over 700,000 pounds and powered by nine Merlin 1C engines, performed flawlessly; and, for the first time in history, a private-sector company spacecraft rendezvoused with the International Space Station. After the Dragon docked with the ISS, the six astronauts aboard the space station unloaded 1,000 pounds of cargo from the visiting spacecraft, including food, clothing, batteries, a lap top computer, and 15 student-designed experiments. After nearly a week in space, the Dragon capsule returned to Earth with 1,455 pounds of cargo collected from the ISS (including personal items, old equipment, and completed experiments), splashing down in the Pacific Ocean.

  During its maiden flight, Falcon 9’s second stage rocket carried the ashes of 308 people, including actor James Doohan, who was among the cast members of the popular Star Trek television series, and Mercury/Gemini astronaut Gordon Cooper. The distribution of the ashes stored in the jettisoned rocket stage was a collaborative project between SpaceX and Celestis, a memorial space flight company.

  In June of 2012, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden met with SpaceX officials at the company’s McGregor, Texas facility to officially accept the cargo package Dragon had transported home from the ISS. The well-publicized meeting cemented the bond between the private-sector and America’s legendary space agency.

  The Dragon mission was part of NASA’s Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Program, a private-sector cargo-delivery service designed to replace the retired space shuttle. The program is part of NASA’s plan to out-source orbital missions, such that the space agency can focus on development of new spacecraft and rockets for more distant missions to the Moon and planets.

  SpaceX, founded in 2002 by billionaire Elon Musk, has entered into a 1.6 billion-dollar contract to fly at least 12 unmanned missions to the International Space Station between 2012 and 2015. SpaceX is scheduled to launch its second cargo-laden spacecraft to the ISS in early October of 2012. The Dragon capsule, featuring wing-like, deployable solar panels, is scheduled for future modification, allowing the spacecraft to transport a seven-passenger crew.

  Orbital Sciences Corporation, based out of Dulles, Virginia, is among three other companies that have contracted with NASA to develop spacecraft capable of transporting cargo and astronauts to the ISS. The company is planning the first test flight of its Cygnus spacecraft and Antares rocket in 2012.

  Virgin Galactic, headed by its flamboyant CEO Richard Branson, has already signed up more than 500 passengers to fly aboard Spaceship Two, which will be designed to transport six people at a time to an altitude of 62 miles. At an individual cost of $200,000.00, space passengers will be able to view the curvature of the Earth, as well as unbuckle their seatbelts for a few minutes, in order to experience the sensation of weightlessness. While the 2012 target date for its maiden voyage proved too ambitious, Virgin Galactic remains committed to offering commercial space flights. The project has been plagued by misfortune; in 2007, during a test of Spaceship Two, a fuel tank explosion killed three engineers. In addition, construction of the company’s New Mexico-based Spaceport America has been slowed by contractor disputes.

  Armadillo Aerospace and XCOR Aerospace have also announced plans to develop and launch spacecraft for commercial passengers. Meanwhile, Russia has formulated plans for a space hotel, known as the Commercial Space Station. Orbiting 250 miles-high, at a velocity of 18,600 miles per hour, the hotel will allow tourists to remain in space from three days up to six months.

  Space tourism will not be for the faint of heart. The chance of rocket failure during a space launch is estimated to be 1 in 20, contrasted with the 1 in 5,000,000 odds of a passenger dying on a commercial airliner.

  The American military continues to maintain a presence in space, most noticeably with its reconnaissance satellites. In April of 2010, the Air Force launched its unmanned OTV-1 (Orbital Test Vehicle 1) spacecraft, which spent 225 days in orbit on a classified mission, before returning to Earth in December of that year. On March 5, 2011, the Air Force launched the X-37B (also known as the OTV-2) robotic spacecraft. Similar in design to the space shuttle, but considerably smaller (29-feet-long and 15-feet-wide), the X-37B is powered by an array of solar panels housed in its payload bed. The space plane’s mission and payload are classified, but are believed to involve testing of spyware on Middle Eastern countries, specifically Afghanistan. Following an orbital path from 43 degrees north latitude to 43 degrees south latitude, the military spacecraft is well-positioned to keep a watchful eye on activities in this volatile region of the world. The X-37B is scheduled to return to Earth sometime in 2012.

  As of 2102, NASA is focusing on development of launch rockets and spacecraft that will support long-distance manned space explorations. The space agency hopes to launch a manned mission to Mars during the 2030s. Such a mission will be a marathon endeavor; six to eight person-crews will spend six months reaching the Red Planet, remain on the Martian surface for 18 months, before returning to Earth.

  Accordingly, space agency researchers are laboring to improve the taste and freshness of the food stores that will nourish the astronauts during long-distance missions. Present day ISS crewmembers can select from nearly 100 food options, all of which are freeze-dried, and have a shelf life of approximately two years. Weightlessness impairs both taste and smell, which has contributed to long-standing complaints about unsavory space food. In all likelihood, long-distance rations will be vegetarian, given the impracticality of preserving meat and dairy products. Future astronauts may well have the capability of preparing meals using pressure cookers. Researchers are also studying the feasibility of constructing hydroponic greenhouses, allowing space travelers to cultivate fresh vegetables and fruits.

  In 1970, the crew of Apo
llo 11 co-authored a book entitled, First on the Moon. Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins soon went their separate ways, reuniting only for anniversaries of the historic lunar landing.

  Shortly after completion of the Apollo 11 mission, Neil Armstrong decided to end his space flight career. For 13 months, he served at the Pentagon as Deputy Associate Director for NASA’s Office of Advanced Research and Technology. In 1971, Armstrong left the space program to pursue an academic career, and was appointed Professor of aerospace engineering and applied mechanics at the University of Cincinnati. While Armstrong technically held only honorary doctorates, students nonetheless addressed him as “Professor” or “Doctor.” The former Apollo 11 commander developed a pair of new courses for the engineering curriculum (Aircraft Design and Experimental Flight Mechanics), while hoping to maintain a life of relative anonymity: “I just wanted to be a University Professor and be permitted to do my research.”

  Armstrong was never a total recluse. In 1979, he became a national spokesperson for Chrysler Corporation, appearing in television and print advertisements. He also appeared as a paid endorser for General Tire and Banker’s Association of America, as well as joining the boards of directors of several companies, including Marathon Oil, United Airlines, and Thiokol. Before retiring in 2002, Armstrong served as chairman of the board for EDO Corporation.

  As a retired astronaut, Armstrong maintained a link with the space program. After the near-catastrophic explosion aboard Apollo 13, Armstrong served as a member of the investigatory committee reviewing the mishap. In 1986, he was appointed to the Rogers Committee investigating the fatal explosion of the space shuttle Challenger.

  Armstrong was party to controversy surrounding his historic voyage to the Moon. Beginning in 1994, he largely refused to sign autographs, after learning that recipients were selling his signature for profit. That same year, Armstrong sued Hallmark Cards for unauthorized use of his “One small step for mankind” quote on a Christmas ornament. The lawsuit settled out of court, and Armstrong donated the award to his alma mater, Purdue University.

  In 2005, Armstrong threatened legal action when his barber of 20 years, Max Sizemore, sold the former astronaut’s hair clippings for $3,000.00, without first obtaining permission. When Sizemore was unable to retrieve the hair clippings, the barber avoided going to court by donating his profits to a charity of Armstrong’s choosing.

  Neil Armstrong was the recipient of numerous awards and honors, including the Sylvanus Thayer Award (presented by the U.S. Military Academy at West Point for service to his country), the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, the Congressional Gold Medal, and the Collier Trophy (awarded by National Aeronautics Association). A handful of elementary, middle, and high schools now bear his name. The engineering building at Purdue University was named the Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering. His hometown of Wapakoneta, Ohio, became home to the Neil Armstrong Air and Space Museum. The airport in New Knoxville, Ohio, where Armstrong took his first flying lessons, was renamed in his honor.

  Armstrong remained active in aviation, piloting over 200 different types of aircraft during his storied career, including jets, propeller driven airplanes, rockets, helicopters, and gliders. In 1989, he was invited to fly the newly developed B-1 bomber.

  In his later years, Armstrong grew troubled over America’s leadership role in space, particularly after NASA cancelled plans for a return mission to the Moon. Addressing a House of Representatives committee in 2010, the famed astronaut shared his concerns: “Some question why America should return to the Moon. After all, they say, ‘We’ve been there.’ I find that mystifying. It would be as if 16th century monarchs proclaimed that ‘We need not go to the new world, we have already been there.”’

  In February of 2012, Armstrong spoke at Ohio State University, during a ceremony honoring the 50th anniversary of John Glenn’s inaugural orbit of Earth. Even though he was the official honoree, Glenn offered tribute to the Apollo 11 commander: “To this day, he’s the one person on Earth, I’m truly envious of.” Three months later, Armstrong joined fellow retired astronaut Gene Cernan (the last man to walk on the Moon) at the opening of the National Flight Academy at the Naval Air Station in Pensacola, Florida. The aviation-oriented camp is designed to teach children about math and science—a project near and dear to Armstrong’s heart.

  In early August of 2012, Armstrong underwent surgery to bypass blockages in four of his coronary arteries. The former astronaut’s health problems elicited an outpouring of affection. NASA Administrator Charles Bolden issued a formal statement on behalf of the space agency: “Neil’s pioneering spirit will surely serve him well in this challenging time, and the entire NASA family is holding the Armstrong family in our thoughts and prayers. I know countless well-wishers around the world join us in sending get-well wishes to this true American hero.” Armstrong’s Apollo 11 crewmate Buzz Aldrin wrote in his Twitter update: “Just heard about Neil and heart surgery today—sending my best wishes for a speedy recovery—we agreed to make it (to) the 50th Apollo anniversary in 2019.”

  Sadly, Armstrong developed serious post-operative complications and died on August 25, 2012, just 20 days after his 82nd birthday. Armstrong’s death was followed by an outpouring of sympathy and acclaim.

  “Neil was among the greatest of American heroes—not just of his time, but of all time. When he and his fellow crew members lifted off aboard Apollo 11 in 1969, they carried with them the aspirations of an entire nation,” President Barack Obama proclaimed.

  Nancy Conrad, widow of Apollo 12 commander Pete Conrad, remembered Armstrong fondly: “Neil was a humble and personable man…Although he was the first man to walk on the Moon, he never asserted his own ego into a conversation.”

  Buzz Aldrin shared remembrances of his Apollo 11 crewmate: “I know I am joined by millions of others in mourning the passing of a true American hero, and the best pilot I ever knew. My friend Neil took the small step but giant leap that changed the world, and will forever be remembered as a landmark moment in human history.” The third member of the Apollo 11 mission, Michael Collins offered his condolences: “He was the best, and I will miss him terribly.”

  Armstrong never actively sought publicity for his role in history, and encouraged others to focus on the group effort that made lunar exploration a reality. In a 2005 interview, Armstrong candidly discussed the perils associated with the Apollo 11 mission, estimating that the chances for a successful lunar landing were only about 50 percent: “I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we were successful.”

  Buzz Aldrin never returned to space after the Apollo 11 Moon landing. In June of 1971, he left NASA after logging a total of 289 hours and 53 minutes in space. Aldrin has authored a handful of books, including Return to Earth, Men from Earth, Magnificent Desolation, and Encounter with Tiber (a science fiction novel). Aldrin has since worked as an aerospace consultant and motivational speaker. In 1992, he designed a computer strategy game, Buzz Aldrin’s Race into Space.

  Like his crewmate Neil Armstrong, Aldrin has encountered controversy related to his role in history. In September of 2002, Bart Sibrel, an investigative journalist who has loudly and repeatedly derided the Apollo 11 mission as an elaborate hoax, confronted Aldrin outside a Beverly Hills Hotel; Sibrel had previously taunted Neil Armstrong in another public forum. Sibrel, the producer of a video entitled A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Moon, accosted Aldrin, with bible in hand, and accused him of being a “coward, liar, and thief.” Unlike Armstrong, who had managed to ignore Sibrel’s public tirade, Aldrin fought back. The 72-year-old astronaut, weighing only 160 pounds, punched his 37-year-old, 250-pound accuser in the face, knocking him to the ground. Sibrel filed a police report, but after reviewing videotape of the fracas, the Los Angeles County District Attorney declined to press charges.

  In the early years after the first lunar landing, Aldrin lingered uneasily in the shadow of Neil Armstrong. Apollo 11 crewmate Micha
el Collins commented on Aldrin’s self-imposed dilemma: “Fame has not worn well on Buzz. I think he resents not being the first man on the Moon more than he appreciates being second.” Aldrin has candidly discussed post-Apollo 11 struggles: “The transition from ‘astronaut preparing to accomplish the next big thing, to astronaut telling the last big thing,’ did not come easily to me.”

  “I moved from drinking to depression to heavier drinking to deeper depression,” Aldrin recalled.

  Aldrin eventually achieved sobriety and became an active member of Alcoholics Anonymous, as well as a staunch advocate for the treatment of mental illness. Aldrin’s personal struggles were dramatized in the 1976 television movie, Return to Earth; actor Cliff Robertson portrayed the famed astronaut.

  Aldrin is a dedicated advocate of private-sector space exploration and future manned missions to the Moon and Mars. He has proposed establishment of a Moon base and development of Lunar Cyclers—a series of vehicles continuously orbiting the Earth and Moon, which would be utilized for transportation of space crews and cargo. Aldrin, who has proposed construction of permanent colonies on the Moon and Mars, believes that a manned mission to Mars is feasible by July 20, 2019—the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11’s lunar landing.

  Time will tell if Aldrin’s proposal for a “unified space vision” for the 21st century will come to fruition. A poll released in June of 2010 revealed that the American public, by a margin of 50 to 31 percent, favored less government focus on space exploration, in light of the country’s troubled economy. The poll findings were consistent with the Obama Administration’s decision to outsource a significant portion of future space research and development to the private-sector.

  In spite of Aldrin’s personal struggles and self-doubts, his historical legacy is firmly entrenched. A Moon crater near the Apollo 11 landing site is named in his honor, along with asteroid number 6470. He has been awarded honorary degrees from six universities, and was the recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom and Robert Collier Trophy. In 2001, President George W. Bush appointed Aldrin to the Commission on the Future of the United States’ Aerospace Industry.