by H. W. Brands
3. H. W. Brands, Masters of Enterprise: Giants of American Business from John Jacob Astor and J. P. Morgan to Bill Gates and Oprah Winfrey (New York: Free Press, 1999), 38.
4. Robert Sobel, Panic on Wall Street (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1988), 251–58; Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams (1907; Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961), 338–39.
5. Arthur G. Burgoyne, Homestead (Pittsburgh: Rawsthorne Engraving and Printing Co., 1893), 16–19.
6. Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie (1920; Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1948), 219.
7. Paul Krause, The Battle for Homestead, 1880–1892: Politics, Culture, and Steel (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992), 12–43; Burgoyne, Homestead, 52–88.
8. Les Standiford, Meet You in Hell: Andrew Carnegie, Henry Clay Frick, and the Bitter Partnership That Transformed America (New York: Crown, 2005), 208–11. Standiford notes the slight differences among observers in the details of the attack.
9. H. W. Brands, The Reckless Decade: America in the 1890s (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 140–44.
10. Almont Lindsey, The Pullman Strike: The Story of a Unique Experiment and of a Great Labor Upheaval (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942), 38–49.
11. William H. Carwardine, The Pullman Strike (1894; New York: Arno Press, 1969), 24.
12. Lindsey, Pullman Strike, 127.
13. New York Times, June 27, 1894.
14. David Ray Papke, The Pullman Case: The Clash of Labor and Capital in Industrial America (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1999), 29–31.
15. Hans B. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy: Origination of an American Tradition (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1955), 164–232; Sherman quoted on 190.
16. Lindsey, Pullman Strike, 157–61. On the use of injunctions in labor disputes, see Felix Frankfurter and Nathan Greene, The Labor Injunction (New York: Macmillan, 1930).
17. Allan Nevins, Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage (1932; New York: Dodd, Mead, 1964), 616–17.
18. Grover Cleveland, The Government in the Chicago Strike of 1894 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1913), reprinted in Leon Stein, ed., The Pullman Strike (New York: Arno, 1869), 22.
19. Lindsey, Pullman Strike, 174–75.
20. Ibid., 208.
21. Papke, Pullman Case, 34–35.
22. Ibid.; Lindsey, Pullman Strike, 211.
23. Lindsey, Pullman Strike, 211; Cleveland, Government in the Chicago Strike, 34–36.
24. Papke, Pullman Case, 64–73.
25. In re Debs, 158 U.S. 564 (1895).
26. Brands, Reckless Decade, 160; Ray Ginger, The Bending Cross: A Biography of Eugene Victor Debs (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1949), 168–83.
27. Carlos A. Schwantes, Coxey’s Army: An American Odyssey (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985), 36.
28. Ibid., 41.
29. Ibid., 43–46.
30. New York Times, April 26, 1894.
31. Schwantes, Coxey’s Army, 69; Brands, Reckless Decade, 167.
32. Schwantes, Coxey’s Army, 183.
33. Ibid., 186–221.
CHAPTER 19: TARIFF BILL AND DOLLAR MARK
1. Richard E. Welch Jr., The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988), 47–65; H. Wayne Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896 (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1969), 252–58.
2. Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley, 333–34; Samuel W. McCall, The Life of Thomas Brackett Reed (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), 118, 128, 138; Harry Thurston Peck, Twenty Years of the Republic: 1885–1905 (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1917), 198–201.
3. Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley, 331–32; Peck, Twenty Years, 195–205.
4. Peck, Twenty Years, 208–12; Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley, 349–53.
5. Margaret Leech, In the Days of McKinley (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959), 40; Peck, Twenty Years, 215–16.
6. Lewis L. Gould, Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans (New York: Random House, 2003), 110.
7. Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley, 462; Steven R. Weisman, The Great Tax Wars: Lincoln to Wilson—The Fierce Battles over Money and Power That Transformed the Nation (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), 131–61; William Lasser, “Income Tax,” in Kermit L. Hall, ed., The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 425–26; Loren P. Beth, “Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust Co.,” Hall, Oxford Companion, 655; Paul Studenski and Herman E. Krooss, Financial History of the United States (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963), 222–24.
8. William A. Robinson, Thomas B. Reed: Parliamentarian (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1930), 321; Allan Nevins, Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1964), 651.
9. H. Wayne Morgan, William McKinley and His America (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1963), 116.
10. The Autobiography of William Allen White (New York: Macmillan, 1946), 294; H. H. Kohlsaat, From McKinley to Harding: Personal Recollections of Our Presidents (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1923), 96.
11. Leech, In the Days of McKinley, 69; Morgan, McKinley and His America, 170–73.
12. Morgan, McKinley and His America, 183–96; Kohlsaat, From McKinley to Harding, 30–31.
13. Morgan, McKinley and His America, 197.
14. Kohlsaat, From McKinley to Harding, 30–37.
15. National Party Platforms, 1840–1968, comp. Kirk H. Porter and Donald Bruce Johnson (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1970), 108.
16. Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley, 496; Paolo E. Coletta, William Jennings Bryan, vol. 1: Political Evangelist, 1860–1908 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1964), 91–92.
17. Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley, 494.
18. Coletta, Bryan, 1:123; H. W. Brands, The Reckless Decade: America in the 1890s (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 258.
19. William Jennings Bryan, Selections, ed. Ray Ginger (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1967), 38–46.
20. Coletta, Bryan, 1:141–46.
21. Ibid., 153–57; John D. Hicks, The Populist Revolt: A History of the Farmers’ Alliance and the People’s Party (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1961), 340–79.
22. Paul W. Glad, The Trumpet Soundeth: William Jennings Bryan and His Democracy, 1896–1912 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1960), 41.
23. Herbert Croly, Marcus Alonzo Hanna: His Life and Work (New York: Macmillan, 1912), 216–20; Morgan, William McKinley and His America, 228; Lewis L. Gould, Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans (New York: Random House, 2003), 125.
24. Coletta, Bryan, 1:166–89; Brands, Reckless Decade, 276–85; Louis W. Koenig, Bryan: A Political Biography of William Jennings Bryan (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1971), 221–51.
25. Coletta, Bryan, 1:167.
26. Leech, In the Days of McKinley, 88–89.
27. Gould, Grand Old Party, 126; Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley, 523.
28. Koenig, Bryan, 249–50.
29. Brands, Reckless Decade, 286; Kohlsaat, From McKinley to Harding, 54.
CHAPTER 20: IMPERIAL DREAMS
1. Archie W. Shiels, The Purchase of Alaska (College: University of Alaska Press, 1967), 15–20.
2. Ibid., 46; Paul S. Holbo, Tarnished Expansion: The Alaska Scandal, the Press, and Congress, 1867–1871 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983), 12–13.
3. Shiels, Purchase of Alaska, 182.
4. Holbo, Tarnished Expansion, 48–49. The case for bribery in the Alaska purchase is persuasive rather than conclusive. Congress investigated itself shortly after the purchase and found nothing criminal or inordinately unethical. The money trail proved impossible to follow. Historian Frank A. Golder, who pursued the matter to Russia, summarized his verdict in a sentence: “It is clear that congressmen were bought, but there is no direct and conclusive evidence in the Russian archives to warrant accusation of any congressman by name” (“The Purchase of Alaska,” American Historical Review 25 [April 1920]: 411�
�25). This has remained the verdict of most historians; see Robert H. Ferrell, “Purchase of Alaska,” The New Encyclopedia of the American West, ed. Howard R. Lamar (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 28.
5. William Graham Sumner, What Social Classes Owe to Each Other (1883; Caldwell: Caxton Printers, 1952), 19–22.
6. Social Darwinism: Selected Essays of William Graham Sumner, ed. Stow Persons (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1963), 137.
7. Sumner, What Social Classes Owe to Each Other, 104–05.
8. William Graham Sumner, “War,” in Essays of William Graham Sumner, ed. Albert Galloway Keller and Maurice R. Davie (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1934), 1:143, 168, and “Earth Hunger, or the Philosophy of Land Grabbing,” Essays, 1:188–89.
9. Albert Galloway Keller, ed., War and Other Essays by William Graham Sumner (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1911), 15–16; H. W. Brands, What America Owes the World: The Struggle for the Soul of Foreign Policy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 18–20.
10. John Fiske, “Manifest Destiny,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, March 1885, 578–90.
11. Josiah Strong, Our Country, ed. Jurgen Hurbst (1885; Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963), 200–20.
12. The Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, ed. H. W. Brands (New York: Cooper Square Press, 2001), 72.
13. A. T. Mahan, Sea Power in Its Relation to the War of 1812 (1905; New York: Haskell House, 1969), 1:vi; Mahan, The Interest of America in Sea Power, Present and Future (1897; Port Washington: Kennikat Press, 1970), 217.
14. Allan Nevins, Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1964), 549–62. Merze Tate, The United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom: A Political History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), provides background to Cleveland’s dilemma; Thomas J. Osborne, Empire Can Wait: American Opposition to Hawaiian Annexation, 1893–1898 (Kent: Kent State University Press, 1981), carries the story forward.
15. H. W. Brands, TR: The Last Romantic (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 326–27; Hermann Hagedorn, Leonard Wood: A Biography (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1931), 1:141.
16. Denis Brian, Pulitzer: A Life (New York: John Wiley, 2001), 231–25; David Nasaw, The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000), 125–42; Ben Proctor, William Randolph Hearst: The Early Years, 1863–1910 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 115–34.
17. H. Wayne Morgan, William McKinley and His America (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1963), 369.
18. Hagedorn, Leonard Wood, 1:141; Morgan, McKinley and His America, 333; Lewis L. Gould, The Presidency of William McKinley (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1980), 75.
19. Gould, Presidency of McKinley, 67; Morgan, McKinley and His America, 342.
20. Morgan, McKinley and His America, 340–48.
21. Gould, Presidency of McKinley, 70.
22. Morgan, McKinley and His America, 356.
23. Ibid., 364–67. The destruction of the Maine inspired subsequent investigations. A joint army-navy board in 1911 concurred with the 1898 verdict that the explosion was external and deliberate, but the most authoritative study, conducted in the 1970s, concluded the opposite: that the explosion was internal and accidental. See H. G. Rickover, How the Battleship Maine Was Destroyed (Washington: Department of the Navy, 1976).
24. Brands, TR, 299, 326.
25. Morgan, McKinley and His America, 367–70.
26. Ibid., 372; Margaret Leech, In the Days of McKinley (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959), 185.
27. Morgan, McKinley and His America, 374.
28. Gould, Presidency of McKinley, 84–86.
29. Morgan, McKinley and His America, 377–78.
30. Brands, TR, 334; The Letters of Archie Butt, Personal Aide to President Roosevelt (Garden City: Doubleday, Page, 1924), 146.
31. Brands, TR, 338–40; Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 182–85; Roosevelt, The Rough Riders, vol. 13 of The Works of Theodore Roosevelt (New York: Charles Scribner’s Son, 1923–26), 13.
32. Brands, TR, 340.
33. Roosevelt, Rough Riders, 92.
34. Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 206–07; 209–11.
35. Brands, TR, 356; Finley Peter Dunne, “A Book Review,” in Mr. Dooley on Ivrything and Ivrybody (New York: Dover, 1963), 104–06.
36. H. H. Kohlsaat, From McKinley to Harding: Personal Recollections of Our Presidents (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1923), 68. The story about pacing the floor of the White House wasn’t published until January 1903, when it appeared in an article in The Christian Advocate by James Rusling, one of the missionaries at the interview with the president. The by-then-deceased McKinley obviously couldn’t confirm or deny the account, but several others of those present corroborated Rusling’s version. See Charles S. Olcott, The Life of William McKinley (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916), 2:110–11.
37. Robert L. Beisner, Twelve Against Empire: The Anti-Imperialists, 1898–1900 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), 61, 76–79.
38. H. W. Brands, Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 27–32.
39. Ibid., 32–33; Congressional Record, Jan. 9, 1900, 704–11. On the anti-imperialists see also E. Berkely Tompkins, Anti-Imperialism in the United States: The Great Debate, 1890–1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970).
40. John A. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study (New York: James Pott, 1902), 82–83; V. I. Lenin, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917; New York: International Publishers, 1933).
41. On the annexation of Hawaii, see Julius W. Pratt, Expansionists of 1898: The Annexation of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1936). Cleveland is quoted in Alyn Brodsky, Grover Cleveland: A Study in Character (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), 303. On the Open Door policy and other aspects of U.S.-China relations, see Michael H. Hunt, The Making of a Special Relationship: The United States and China to 1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983).
42. Ernest R. May, Imperial Democracy: The Emergence of the United States as a Great Power (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), offers an insightful discussion of the tensions between imperialism and democracy.
CHAPTER 21: THE APOTHEOSIS OF PIERPONT MORGAN
1. Richard Zerbe, “The American Sugar Refinery Company, 1887–1914: The Story of a Monopoly,” Journal of Law and Economics 12 (1969): 339–75 (quote from 341); Charles W. McCurdy, “The Knight Sugar Decision of 1895 and the Modernization of American Corporate Law, 1869–1903,” Business History Review 53 (1979): 304–42.
2. United States v. E. C. Knight Co., 156 U.S. 1 (1895).
3. Historical Statistics of the United States (Washington: Bureau of the Census, 1970), 1:211.
4. Hamlin Garland, “Homestead and Its Perilous Trades: Impressions of a Visit,” McClure’s Magazine, June 1894, 3.
5. Burton J. Hendrick, The Life of Andrew Carnegie, vol. 2 (Garden City: Doubleday, Doran, 1932), 22–23.
6. Margaret G. Myers, A Financial History of the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), 216; Allan Nevins, Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1964), 657.
7. Herbert L. Satterlee, J. Pierpont Morgan: An Intimate Portrait (New York: Macmillan, 1939), 285–86.
8. Ibid., 288–92; Nevins, Cleveland, 661–63; Ron Chernow, The House of Morgan: An American Banking Dynasty and the Rise of Modern Finance (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), 73–77; Jean Strouse, Morgan: American Financier (New York: Random House, 1999), 342–45.
9. Nevins, Cleveland, 663; Strouse, Morgan, 348.
10. H. W. Brands, The Reckless Decade: America in the 1890s (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 78–79.
11. Chernow, House of Morgan, 154.
12. Strouse, Morgan, 397–400; Joseph Frazier Wall, Andrew Carnegie (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 665.
13. H. W. Brands, Masters of Enterprise: Giants of American Business
from John Jacob Astor and J. P. Morgan to Bill Gates and Oprah Winfrey (New York: Free Press, 1999), 78.
14. Hendrick, Carnegie, 2:136–39; Wall, Andrew Carnegie, 787–89.
15. Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller Sr. (New York: Random House, 1998), 388–93; Allan Nevins, Study in Power: John D. Rockefeller, Industrialist and Philanthropist (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1953), 2:267–73; Wall, Carnegie, 764; Strouse, Morgan, 404–05.
EPILOGUE: THE DEMOCRATIC COUNTERREVOLUTION
1. Maury Klein, The Life and Legend of E. H. Harriman (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 226–34; New York Times, May 9, 1901.
2. Ron Chernow, The House of Morgan: An American Banking Dynasty and the Rise of Modern Finance (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), 88–94; Jean Strouse, Morgan: American Financier (New York: Random House, 1999), 431–34.
3. Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington: Bureau of the Census, 1976), 1:224, 240; Eric Foner and John A. Garraty, eds., The Reader’s Companion to American History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991), 104, 855.
4. Historical Statistics, 1:402.
5. Ibid., 1:369, 379, 382.
6. Ibid., 1:383.
7. Arthur Wallace Dunn, From Harrison to Harding: A Personal Narrative, Covering a Third of a Century, 1888–1921 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1922), 335.
8. Margaret Leech, In the Days of McKinley (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959), 592–601.
9. H. W. Brands, TR: The Last Romantic (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 415–18.
10. Ibid., 427–28.
11. Ibid., 437.
12. Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller Sr. (New York: Random House, 1998), 541.
13. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk, ed. David W. Blight and Robert Gooding-Williams (1903; Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 62–72.
14. Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington, vol. 1: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856–1901 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 311–24; Brands, TR, 421–24.
15. The Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, ed. H. W. Brands (New York: Cooper Square Press, 2001), 273.
