Violence, Colonialism and Empire in the Modern World
Page 38
5.Muhammad Yuanda Zara, ‘“Trust me, this news is indeed true”: representations of violence in Indonesian newspapers during the Indonesian revolution, 1945–1948’, in Luttikhuis and Moses (eds), Colonial Counterinsurgency, 214–239.
6.Rémy Limpach, De brandende kampongs van generaal Spoor (Amsterdam 2016); Thijs Brocades Zaalberg, ‘The civil and military dimensions of Dutch counter-insurgency on Java, 1947–49’, British Journal for Military History, 1 (2015), 67–83; Gert Oostindie, Soldaat in Indonesië: Getuigenissen van een oorlog aan de verkeerde kant van de geschiedenis (Amsterdam 2015). A partial exception to this trend is Benjamin Bouman, Van Driekleur tot Rood Wit: De Indonesische Officieren uit het KNIL: 1900–1950 (Den Haag 1995).
7.Anthony Reid, The Indonesian National Revolution (Hawthorn, 1974); Robert Cribb, Gangsters and Revolutionaries: The Jakarta People’s Militia and the Indonesian Revolution, 1945–1949 (North Sydney, 1991); William H. Frederick, Visions and heat: the making of the Indonesian revolution (Athens, Ohio, 1989).
8.For an overview of the Dutch debate see, Stef Scagliola, ‘Cleo’s “unfinished business”: coming to terms with Dutch war crimes in Indonesia’s war of independence’, in Luttikhuis and Moses (eds), Colonial Counterinsurgency, 240–260. On the British court cases see, Huw Bennet, ‘Soldiers in the court room: the British army’s part in the Kenya Emergency under the legal spotlight’, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 39 (December 2011), 717–730; Richard Norton-Taylor, ‘Batang Kali massacre ruling clears way for UK supreme court appeal’, Guardian (19 March 2014).
9.Limpach, Brandende kampongs; Oostindie, Soldaat in Indonesië; Bart Luttikhuis en A. Dirk Moses, ‘Colonial counterinsurgency and mass violence: the Dutch empire in Indonesia’, in: Luttikhuis and Moses, Colonial Counterinsurgency 1–24.
10.Henk Schulte Nordholt, ‘A genealogy of violence’, in Colombijn and Lindblad, Roots of violence, 33–61; Limpach, Brandende kampongs, 705–708; Oostindie, Soldaat in Indonesië, 18–19, 177.
11.Jaap de Moor, Generaal Spoor: Triomf en Tragiek van een Legercommandant (Amsterdam, 2011), 61–63, 70–71, 162.
12.Between 6 September and 12 December 1946, for instance, 65 Dutch and 1655 Indonesians were killed according to Dutch military reports (a ratio of 1:25): National Archives The Hague (henceforth NL-HaNA), Armed Forces NI, 137. Similarly, between 1 February and 20 May 1949, the Marine Brigade suffered five soldiers killed whilst inflicting 1598 killed on the ‘enemy’, according to the overviews in: NL-HaNA, Navy Command, 2096.
13.For discussion of the Dutch reaction to Indonesian insurgency see, Brocades Zaalberg, ‘The civil and military dimensions’; Scagliola, Last van de oorlog, 17–102; De Moor, Westerling’s oorlog, especially 25–36.
14.For a general overview of the action: National Archives The Hague (henceforth NL-HaNA), Ministry of Defence: Armed Forces in the Netherlands-Indies, 2.13.132 (henceforth Armed Forces NI), 352, Daily overview Z-brigade command, 3–4 August 1947.
15.NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 3238, Corps history 1-1 RI August 1947.
16.NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 3305, War diary 1 Squadron Armoured Cars, Report on the action of Monday 4 August 1947. We further consulted: NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 1272, 3291, 3323 en and 3344.
17.Hans Post, Bandjir over Noord-Sumatra II (Medan 1948/1949)‚ 166.
18.M.W. Rombout, Ter herinnering aan Uw verblijf op Sumatra 1-1 R.I. (Belawan, 1948), 8.
19.Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia (henceforth ANRI), Arsip Kementerian Pertahanan (henceforth KemHan), 1322, Report from the department of information and publication for the minister of Defence, 19 September 1947.
20.Abdul Haris Nasution, Sekitar Perang Kemerdekaan Indonesia (Regarding the Indonesian War of Independence; Bandung 1977–1979). For this chapter we used volumes V, VI, X. This work of Nasution has never been translated into Dutch or English, which probably contributed to impeding its reception in Dutch historiography. On Nasution see, C. L. M. Penders and Ulf Sundhaussen, Abdul Haris Nasution: a political biography (St. Lucia, 1985).
21.Nasution, Sekitar Perang Kemerdekaan VI, Perang gerilya semesta I (Bandung, 1978), 169.
22.NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 3294, Corps history 2-2 RVA fourth quarter 1947, 13 January 1948.
23.Cp. NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 2977, Overview regarding the movements and actions in the period from 1 October 1947 until 31 December 1947, 8 January 1948.
24.Nasution, Sekitar Perang Kemerdekaan V, Agresi militer Belanda I (Bandung, 1978), 506.
25.Oostindie, Soldaat in Indonesië, 187–190, 211–215.
26.Nasution for example (Sekitar Perang Kemerdekaan X, 128) mentions two confrontations on 9 March 1949 (near Ploso and Jombang) in which a total of six Dutch soldiers were allegedly killed. Dutch sources only mention a few wounded soldiers. According to the information of the usually reliable Dutch War Graves Foundation, not a single Dutch soldier was killed on 9 March in East-Java. See especially: NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 1858 and 1901; https://oorlogsgravenstichting.nl/zoeken?object=persoon&q=&filter[0]=overlijdensdatum&value[0]=09-03-1949#zoeken-form (30 November 2015).
27.NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 3248, Overview of movements etc. 2-4 RI third quarter 1947, 30 September 1947.
28.Jan Bank (ed.), De excessennota: Nota betreffende het archiefonderzoek naar de gegevens omtrent excessen in Indonesië begaan door Nederlandse militairen in de periode 1945–1950 (The Hague, 1995); Scagliola, ‘Cleo’s “unfinished business”’; Luttikhuis, ‘Juridisch afgedwongen excuses’.
29.Oostindie, Soldaat in Indonesië, 190–200, 310–319; Limpach, Brandende kampongs, 419–439.
30.ANRI, Kepolisian Negara RI 1947–1949 (henceforth PolNeg), 498.
31.ANRI, PolNeg, 498, Transcript ‘miscellaneous incidents’, 19 November 1947.
32.ANRI, PolNeg, 498, Transcript ‘miscellaneous incidents’, 15 March 1947; ANRI, PolNeg, 498, Transcript ‘miscellaneous incidents’, 19 November 1947.
33.ANRI, PolNeg, 498, Transcript ‘miscellaneous incidents’, 19 November 1947. About two weeks later, on 13 November, another comparable action was conducted in the same village.
34.See e.g.: NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 3238, Corps history I-1 R.I., 1947. Similar phrases can be found in: NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 3253, Overview of actions in which 2-6 RI participated, 1946–1947.
35.NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 1853, Intelligence report VDMB 1 November 1947. Lumajang was in the operational zone of the Marine Brigade rather than the army.
36.Limpach, Brandende kampongs, 435, 439.
37.NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 1856–1857; NL-HaNA, Navy Command, 2096.
38.NL-HaNA, Navy Command, 2096, Operational report 1–15 September 1947; NL-HaNA, Navy Command, 2096, Operational report 15–31 October 1947; NL-HaNA, Navy Command, 2096, Operational report 15–31 October 1947: appendix ‘Overview on the period 21 July–1 November 1947’.
39.ANRI, PolNeg, 498, Transcript ‘miscellaneous incidents’, 19 November 1947.
40.ANRI, PolNeg, 498, Transcript ‘miscellaneous incidents’, 19 November 1947.
41.NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 1871, Situation report 13 November 1947.
42.Cf. on the same semantic tendency in Indonesian newspapers: Zara, “Trust me” 232–234.
43.E.g.: NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 1853, Intelligence report 2 November 1947. On the Indonesian campaign to ‘arrest’/‘kidnap’ village heads loyal to the Dutch: Harry Poeze, ‘Walking the tightrope: internal Indonesian conflict, 1945–49’, in: Luttikhuis and Moses, Colonial Counterinsurgency, 176–197.
44.Groen, Marsroutes en dwaalsporen, 247–251; Scagliola, Last van de oorlog passim; De Moor, Westerling’s oorlog 237, 261, 265; De Moor, Generaal Spoor: triomf en tragiek van een legercommandant (Amsterdam 2011) 280, 310; Poeze, ‘Walking the tightrope’.
45.More extensively on this distinction: Bart Luttikhuis, ‘Generating distrust through intelligence work: Psychological terror and the Dutch intelligence services in Indonesia 1945–1949’, War in History (fo
rthcoming 2017); Remco Raben, ‘Zonder vorm van proces’, Historisch nieuwsblad, Nr. 10 (2014) 33–39.
46.NL-HaNA, Navy Command, 2096, Operational report 1–14 September 1947, 6.
47.Unfortunately, it is as yet unclear to what extent this practice was also prevalent in other units at different locations.
48.NL-HaNA, Armed Forces NI, 1854, Situation report 30 January 1948–31 January 1948.
49.ANRI, Kementerian Penerangan, 93, Letter from Malang department of information to the Ministry of Information, 21 February 1948.
50.IJzereef, De Zuid-Celebes affaire; De Moor, Westerling’s oorlog, 128–159.
51.See for the Dutch investigation: Excessennota 24–26.
52. Excessennota 24.
53.David French, The British Way in Counter-Insurgency 1945–1967 (Oxford 2011), 105–137; Luttikhuis, ‘Generating distrust’.
54.Groen, Marsroutes en dwaalsporen 210–212; Oostindie, Soldaat in Indonesië 187–190. Limpach (Brandende kampongs, 389–419) deals with mechanical violence somewhat more extensively, but most of his in-depth case studies still focus on various forms of contact violence.
55.The undue overemphasis of colonial historians on contact violence has therefore resulted in an overemphasis on supposedly unique colonial genealogies of violence. E.g. Schulte Nordholt, ‘Genealogies’; Limpach, Brandende kampongs, 63–119, 705–711, 750–751; Oostindie, Soldaat in Indonesië, 18–19, 177.
56.ANRI, Rasjid, 240, Letter from Governor of Aceh to PDRI, 28 June 1949.
57.NL-HaNA, Navy Command, 2206, Summary HQ Military Aviation concerning operations Hulstkamp I and II and action Lho Seumaweh on 2 and 3 June 1949, 1 September 1949. See further: NL-HaNA, Navy Command, 2209, Chronological report action against Lho Seumawé, 8 June 1949; NL-HaNA, Navy Command, 1275, Situation report HQ Military Aviation, 7 June 1949.
58.See, for example, the drawings by Mohammed Toha, made during the Dutch occupation of Yogyakarta (December 1948) in Pieter Eckhardt and J. P. Sigmond (eds), Kind in de oorlog: Mohammed Toha schildert Yogyakarta 1948–1949 (Amsterdam, 2009); Remco Raben, ‘Getuige in opdracht: de val van Djokja door de ogen van Mohammad Toha’, in Oorlog! Van Indië tot Indonesië 1945–1950 (Arnhem, 2015), 24–25.
59.G. Palmer-Fernandez, ‘Civilian Populations in War, Targeting of’, in Encyclopaedia of Applied Ethics, 2nd edition (London, 2012), 459–466; Karma Nabulsi, ‘Evolving Conceptions of Civilians and Belligerents: One Hundred Years After the Hague Peace Conferences’, in Simon Chesterman (ed.), Civilians in War (London, 2001), 9–24, 15–18; Sahr Conway-Lanz, Collateral Damage: Americans, Noncombatant Immunity, and Atrocity after World War II (New York, 2006).
Index
A
Abdullah, Munshi
Aboriginal people
Aborigines
Aborigines Committee
Addison, Joseph
Aftermaths
Akhdar, Jebel
Alexander
Algeria (1954–1962)
Al-Mukhtar, Omar
American colonies
Amritsar
Anglo-Mysore Wars
Anti-guerrilla warfare
Anxiety
Anxiety and fear
Arendt, Hannah
Arrested
Arrests
Arson
Arthur, Sir George
Australian colonies
B
Badoglio, General Pietro
Banditry
Bedouin
Bill of Rights of 1689
Birch, James
Blackhawk, Ned
Blackstone, William
Black War
Blindsight
Blomley, Nicholas
Boer settlers
Boer War
Bombardments
Britain’s first war with Kandy
Britain’s second campaign against Kandy
British Kaffraria
British Mandates in Iraq and Palestine
British Protectorates in Iraq and Palestine
British sovereignty
Brown
Burma
Byrne, William
C
Canadian rebels
Capability Brown
Cape Colony
Cape of Good Hope
Capua, J.V.
Caribbean
Casualties
Césaire, Aimé
Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
Chau, Phan Boi
China
Civilian deaths
Civilised warfare
Civilising mission
Classification of
Clifford, Hugh
Coercion
Collateral damage
Collateral damage and civilian casualties
Collins, John M.
Colonial governmentality
Colonial governors
Colonial history
Colonialism
Colonial ‘knowledge’
Colonial Office
Colonial police
Colonial violence
Colony of Victoria
Concentration camps
Conrad, Joseph
Contested legitimacy
Convicts
Coorong
Corporal punishment
Counterinsurgency theory (‘COIN’)
Cove, Risdon
Craddock, John
Crawfurd, John
Criminal Tribes Act of 1871
Cromer, Lord
Consul-General of Egypt
Culture-bound syndrome
D
Daniell, Samuel
Davey, Thomas
De Bono, General Emilio
Decapitation
Decolonization
Defence of the Realm Act of 1920
Demographic impact
Denial
Denver A. Webb
Destruction of property
Dê Tham
De Vecchi, Cesare Maria
Dicey, Alfred
Displacement
Doumer, Paul
Duar (Libyan anti-colonial militias)
Dutch colonial army
Dutch historiography
Dyzenhaus, David
E
Eastern Cape
Elbourne, Elizabeth
Emergency Regulations in Malaya 1948–1958
Emotion and insecurity
Empire
Eureka Stockade
Evans, Julie
‘Excessive’ violence
Executive Council
Extreme violence in the British Empire
Eyre, E.J.
F
Fanon, Frantz
Farquhar, William
Fauconnier, Henri