Pythagoras: His Life and Teaching, a Compendium of Classical Sources
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But Pythagoras, accepting the arrow and not looking strangely upon it, or asking the cause why he gave it him; but, as if he were himself the true god, taking Abaris aside he showed him his golden thigh, as an assured mark that he was not mistaken. And then, reckoning every particular of all those that were in the temple, proved that he did not guess amiss. He added that he came for the benefit of men, and for this reason was in man's shape, that they might not be astonished at one so far above them, and so fly his doctrine. And he commanded Abaris to stay there, and to join with him in instructing them who came to him. As for the gold which Abaris had gathered for his god, Pythagoras commanded him to give it to those whom he had assembled; insomuch that he actually confirmed the sentence, “All things are common amongst friends.”
Abaris thus staying with him (as we said), he gave him the epitome of physiology and theology. And instead of the art of guessing by sacrifices, he taught him that kind of Prognostic which is by numbers, as thinking that more sacred and divine, and more agreeable to the celestial numbers of the gods. And other doctrines he taught Abaris, such as were proper for him.
Milo of Crotona, the most eminent wrestler of those times, was another disciple to Pythagoras.260 He, when in the hall of the college a pillar begun to yield, went under it; and by that means saved all the scholars, and at last got away himself. It is probable that this confidence in his great strength was the occasion of his death. For they report that as he was going through a thick wood far from any way, finding a great tree with wedges in it, he set his hand and feet to it, trying to split it asunder; whereupon the wedges fell out, and he being caught, became a prey to the wild beasts. In his house it was that the Pythagoreans were surprised and burned by the Cylonians.
Calliphon of Crotona, is mentioned by Hermippus as an intimate friend of Pythagoras, who reported when Calliphon was dead, that his soul was continually present with him. He also said that the soul commanded him that he should not pass the place where his ass fell; and that he should abstain from impure water, and avoid ill-speaking.261
We only mention these here as being most particularly interested in the relation of Pythagoras and his life: a more perfect account of the rest, we will add in the following catalogue.
Sport competitions of many kinds were popular with the ancient Greeks, and wrestling was among the most important. Pythagoras' disciple Milo of Crotona, famed as a wrestler, would have engaged in contests like the one shown on the obverse of this silver stater of c.420–370 B.C., isued by the city of Aspendus in Asia Minor.
Photo courtesy of Numismatica Ars Classica
CHAPTER 24
THE SUCCESSION OF HIS SCHOOL
The successor of Pythagoras is by all acknowledged to have been Aristaeus, son of Damophon, a Crotonian who lived in the time of Pythagoras seven generations above Plato. Nor did he succeed in the school only, but in breeding the children of Pythagoras and in the marriage with Theano, for his eminent understanding of his opinions. He is said to have taught the doctrine of Pythagoras forty years together lacking one, living in all, near an hundred. Pythagoras assigned the school to Aristaeus as being the oldest.262
Next him Mnesarchus, son of Pythagoras. He delivered it to Bulagoras, in whose time the city of Crotona was sacked. He was succeeded by Tidas, a Crotonian, returning from travels he began before the war. But he died with grief for the calamity of his country; whereas it was a common thing to others, when they were very old, to free themselves from the fetters of the body. Afterwards they took one of the Lucanians, saved by some strangers, to be the President of the school. To him came Diodorus the Aspendian, who was taken by reason of the scarcity of men in their college.
At Heraclea, Clinias and Philolaus. At Metapontum, Theorides and Eurytus. At Tarentum, Archytas. One of the external listeners to his discourse was Epicharmus, who was not of the College. Coming to Syracusa in the time of the tyranny of Hieron, he forbare publicly to profess philosophy; but he reduced the opinions of those men (the Pythagoreans) into verse, sportively divulging the abstruse doctrines of Pythagoras.
Of the Pythagoreans it is likely that many were obscure; the names of such as were eminent, are these:
Crotonians: Hippostatus Dymas, Aegon, Aemon, Silius, Cleosthenes, Agelas, Episylus, Phyciadas, Ecphanius, Timaeus, Buthius, Eratus, Itanaus, Phodippus, Bryas, Evander, Millias, Antimedon, Aegas, Leophron, Agylas, Onatus, Hipposthenes, Cleophron, Alcmaeon, Damocles, Milon, Meton.
Metapontines: Brontinus, Parmiscus, Arestadas, Leo, Damarmenos, Aeneas, Chilas, Melisias, Aristeas, Laphaon, Evander, Agesidamus, Xenocides, Euriphemus, Aristomenes, Agesarchus, Alcias, Xenophantes, Thraseos, Arytus, Epiphron, Eiriscus, Megistaes, Leocydes, Thrasymides, Euphemus, Proclus, Antimedes, Lacritus, Damotages, Pyrrhon, Rhexibius, Alopecus, Astylus, Dacydus, Aliochus, Lacrates, Glucinus.
Agrigentine: Empedocles.
Velian: Parmenides.
Tartentines: Philolaus, Arytus, Archytas, Theodorus, Aristippus, Lycon, Estiaeus, Polemarchus, Asteas, Caenias. Cleon, Eurymedon, Arceas, Clinagoras, Archippus, Zopyrus, Euthynus, Dicaearchus, Philonides, Phrontidas, Lysis, Lysibius, Dinocrates, Echecrates, Paetion, Acusiladas, Iccus, Pisicrates, Clearatus, Leonteus, Phrinichus, Simicheas, Aristoclides, Clinias, Abroteles, Piserrydus, Brias, Evander, Archemachus, Mimnomachus, Achmondas, Sicas, Caraphantidas.
Sybarites: Metopus, Hippasus, Proxenus, Evanor, Deanax, Menestius, Diocles, Empedus, Timasius, Polemaeus, Evaeus, Tyrsenus.
Parians: Aetius, Phenecles, Dexitheus, Alcimachas, Dinarchus, Meton, Timaeus, Timesianax, Amcaerus, Eumaridias.
Locrians: Gyptius, Xenon, Philodamus, Euetes, Adicus, Sthenonidas, Sosistratus, Euthynus, Zaleucus, Timares.
Posidonians: Athamas, Simus, Proxenus, Cranius, Mayes, Bathylaus, Phaedo.
Lucanians: Ocellus and Ocylus (brethren), Oresander, Cerambus, Dardaneus, Malias.
Aegeans: Hippomedon, Timosthenes, Euelthon, Thrasydamus, Crito, Polyctor.
Laconians: Antocharidas, Cleanor, Eurycratus.
Hyperborean: Abaris.
Rhegians: Aristides, Demosthenes, Aristocrates, Phytius, Helicaon, Mnesibulus, Hipparchides, Athosion, Euthycles, Opsimus.
Selinuntian: Colaes.
Syracusians: Leptines, Phintias, Damon.
Samians: Melissus, Lacon, Archippus, Glorippus, Heloris, Hippon.
Caulonians: Callibrotus, Dicon, Nastas, Drymon, Xentas.
Phliasians: Diocles, Echecrates, Polymnastus, Phanton.
Sicyonians: Paliades, Demon, Sostratius, Sosthenes.
Kyrenaeans: Prorus, Melanippus, Aristangelus, Theodorus.
Cyzicenes: Pythodorus, Hipposthenes, Butherus, Xenophilus.
Catanaean: Charondas.
Corinthian: Lysiades.
Tyrrhene: Chrysippus.
Athenian: Nausitheus.
Of Pentus: Neocritus, Lyramnus.
In all, 213.263
The eminent Pythagorean women, are:
Tymicha, wife of Millius the Crotonian.
Philtes, daughter of Leophron, a Crotonian, sister of Bindaecus.
Oecelo and Eccelo, of Luca.
Chilonis, daughter of Chilo the Lacedaemonian.
Theano, wife of Brontinus the Metapontine.
Muya, wife of Milo the Crotonian.
Lasthenia of Arcadia, daughter of Abroteles the Tarentine.
Echecrates, a Phliasian.
Tyrsenes of Sybaris.
Pysirronde of Tarentum, daughter of Nistiades.
Salacera.
Bio of Argos.
Babelyma of Argos.
Cleaechma, sister of Authocharides, a Lacedaemonian.
In all, 17, thus Iamblichus.
Laertius says his system (or as Cassiodorus called it, his college) continued for nineteen generations. For the last of the Pythagoreans, whom Aristoxenus saw, were Xenophilus the Chalcidean of Thrace, and Phanton a Phliasian, and Echecrates, and Diocles, and Polymnestus, who also were Phliasians. They heard Philolaus and Eurytus, both of Tarentum.
Part Two
The Discipline and Doctrine of the Pythagoreans
The Greeks believed a mysterious race of people lived in Hyperborea, a land they placed beyond Scythia, where this gold stater was struck at Panticapaeum between c.340 and 325 B.C. It shows on its obverse the head of a satyr (or the god Pan), and on its reverse the mythical griffin with a spear in its beak.
Photo courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.
CHAPTER 1
THE GREAT AUTHORITY AND ESTEEM OF PYTHAGORAS AMONGST HIS DISCIPLES
Pythagoras, to render his disciples capable of Philosophy, prepared them by a discipline so strict and severe as might seem incredible to have been undergone by free persons—were it not founded upon the great authority and reputation which he had amongst them.
The credit of their opinions they conceived to be this: that he who first communicated them was no ordinary person, but a god.264 The disciples, or Acousmata, believed him to be a god: indeed, Hyperborean Apollo.265 In confirmation thereof they instance those wonders related in his life. They say that these stories being acknowledged to be true—and it being impossible they should all be performed by one man—they conceive it manifest that these relations are to be ascribed, not to a human being, but to something above mankind. This they acknowledge, for amongst them is a saying:
Two-footed Man,266 and Bird
Is, and another Third.
By the “Third,” they meant Pythagoras. And Aristotle, in his book on Pythagorean philosophy, relates, that such a division as this was preserved by the Pythagoreans amongst their ineffable secrets.267 Of rational animals, one kind is God; another, man; a third between both these, Pythagoras.
They esteemed Pythagoras in the next place to the gods, as some good genius indulgent to mankind: some affirming that he was Pythian; others Hyperborean Apollo. Some said he was one of those genie which dwell in the Moon; others, one of the celestial deities appearing at that time in human shape for the benefit and direction of mortal life, that he might communicate the wholesome illumination of beatitude and philosophy to mortal nature. They affirmed a greater good can never come, nor shall ever come, than that which was given by the gods through the means of Pythagoras.268 Whence to this day the proverb of the fair-haired Samian is used for a most reverend person.
Porphyry says they reckoned him amongst the gods.269 Therefore, whenever they went to deliver to others any excellent thing out of the secrets of his philosophy—whence many physical conclusions might be deduced—they swore by the Tetractys. And calling Pythagoras, as some God to witness, they said:
Who the Tetractys to our Souls express'd,
Eternal Nature's Fountain I attest.
Which oath they used as forbearing through reverence to name him; for they were very sparing in using the name of any god.270
So great indeed was the respect they bore him, that it was not lawful for anyone to doubt of what he said, nor to question him further concerning it. They acquiesced in all things that he delivered as if they were oracles.271 And when he went abroad to cities, it was reported he went not to teach, but to cure.
Hence it came to pass, that when they asserted anything in dispute, if they were questioned why it was so, they used to answer, Ipse dixit (“He said it”)—“he” being Pythagoras.272 This [“He said it”]† was amongst them the first and greatest of doctrines—his judgment being a reason free from and above all examination and censure. 273
CHAPTER 2
THE TWO SORTS OF AUDITORS: AND FIRST OF THE EXOTERIC, HOW HE EXPLORED THEM
The Auditors of Pythagoras (such, I mean, as belonged to the family) were of two sorts, exoteric and esoteric. The Exoterics were those who were under probation, which if they performed, they were admitted to Esoterics. For of those who came to Pythagoras, he admitted not everyone, but only those whom he liked: first, upon choice, and next by trial.
The Pythagoreans are said to have been averse to those who sell learning, and open their souls, like the gates of an Inn, to everyone that comes to them. And if they find not a vent or sale in this manner, then they run into cities and ransack the gymnasia, and exact a reward from dishonorable persons. Whereas Pythagoras hid much of his speeches; so only they who were purely initiated might plainly understand them.274 But the rest, as Homer said of Tantalus, grieve, for that being in the midst of learning, they cannot taste of it. Moreover they said that they who for hire teach such as come to them, are meaner then statuaries and chariotmakers. For a statuary, when he would make a Mercury, seeks out some piece of wood fit to receive that form; but these, of every disposition, endeavor to make that of virtue.275
When (therefore) any friends came to him, and desired to learn of him, he admitted them not till he had made trial and judgment of them.276 First, he enquired how they did heretofore converse with their parents and friends; next, he observed their unseasonable laughters, and unnecessary silence or discourse. Moreover, what their inclinations were (whether possessed with passion and intemperance, whether prone to anger or unchaste desires, or contentious or ambitious, and how they behaved themselves in contention and friendship277). As likewise what friends those were with whom they were intimate, and their conversation with them, and in whose society they spent the greatest part of the day; likewise upon what occasions they experienced joy or grief.278
Moreover he considered their presence and their gait, and the whole motion of their body. And physiognomizing them by their symptoms, he discovered by manifest signs the occult dispositions of their souls.279 For he first studied that science concerning men, thereby discovering of what disposition everyone was. Neither did he admit any into his friendship and acquaintance before he had physiognomized the man, what he was.280 This word (says Aulus Gellius, upon the same occasion) signifies to make enquiry into the manners of some by some kind of conjecture—of the wit by the face and countenance, and by the air and habit of the whole body. 281
If upon exact observation of all these particulars, he found them to be of good dispositions, then he examined whether they had good manners, and were docile. First, whether they could readily and ingeniously follow that which he told them; next, whether they had any love to those things which they heard.282 For he considered what disposition they were as to being made gentle. This he called [“culture”]; for he accounted roughness an enemy to his way of teaching. Because roughness is attended by impatience, intemperance, anger, obtuseness, confusion, dishonor, and the like; but mildness and gentleness by their contraries.
Likewise in making the first trial of them, he considered whether they could [“restrain their speech”] (that was the word he used). And he examined whether if they could learn that which they heard, they were able to be silent and keep it to themselves.283
CHAPTER 3
PURIFICATORY INSTITUTION BY SUFFERINGS
The chief goal that Pythagoras proposed was to deliver and free the mind from the engagements and fetters in which it is confined from her first infancy. Without which freedom, none can learn anything sound or true, nor can perceive by what that which is unsound in sense operates.284 For the mind (according to him) sees all, and hears all; the rest are deaf and blind.
This he performed by many exercises which he appointed for purification of the mind, and for the probation of such as came to him, which endured five years before they were admitted.
If upon this examination (which we declared) he judged any person capable, he then remitted him for three years to be despised, making a test of his constancy and true love to learning, and whether he were sufficiently instructed as to despise glory, to condemn honor, and the like.285
He conceived it, in general, requisite that they should take much labor and pains for the acquisition of arts and sciences. To that end he appointed for them some torments of cauterizing and incision, to be performed by fire and steel, which none that were of an ill inclination would undergo.286
CHAPTER 4
SILENCE
Moreover, he imposed upon those that came to him
silence for five years, making trial how firmly they would behave themselves in the most difficult of all contingencies; for such is the government of the tongue, as is manifest from those who have divulged mysteries.287
This a quinquennial silence,† was called [“restraining speech”], and sometimes, but less frequently, [“keeping silent”], from keeping our speech within ourselves.†288
The reason for this silence was that the soul might be converted into herself and away from external things—from the irrational passions in her, and from the body, even unto her own life, which is to live forever.289 Or as Clement of Alexandria expresses it, that his disciples, being diverted from sensible things, might seek God with a pure mind.290 Hence Lucian, to the demand how Pythagoras could reduce men to the remembrance of the things which they had formerly known (for he held science to be only reminiscence), makes him answer, “First, by long quiet and silence, speaking nothing for five whole years.”291
Yet Aulus Gellius affirms that he appointed not the same length of silence to all, but different periods to several persons according to their particular capacities.292 And Apuleius says that for the graver sort of persons this taciturnity was moderated by a shorter space; but the more talkative were punished, as it were, by exile from speech five years.