Mad, Bad, and Sad: A History of Women and the Mind Doctors

by Lisa Appignanesi

  from 1920 to 1986 Theodore Shapiro, MD, ‘The Reality of Trauma’, Contemporary Psychoanalysis 31 (1995), pp. 451–8

  men and women Noreen Connell and Cassandra Wilson (eds), Rape: The First Sourcebook for Women (New York: New American Library, 1974), available at http://www.americancivilrightsreview.com/docs-nyradicalfeminist-srapemanifesto1971.htm

  insults during quarrels Wendy McElroy, ‘The New Mythology of Rape’, at http://www.wendymcelroy.com/rape.htm

  their latent hatred ‘Interview with Alice Miller’, trans. Simon Worrall, at http://www.alice-miller.com/interviews_en.php?page=1

  rid of it Alice Miller, ‘The Essential Role of an Enlightened Witness in Society’, at http://www.alice-miller.com/index_en.php?page=2

  new kind of person Ian Hacking, ‘The Making and Molding of Child Abuse’, Critical Inquiry vol. 17, no. 2 (Winter 1991), p. 260

  was still climbing Ed Magnuson, ‘Child Abuse: the Ultimate Betrayal’, Time Magazine, 5 Sept. 1983

  numbers may be greater Ellen Bass and Louise Thornton, I Never Told Anyone (New York: Harper & Row, 1983), pp. 24–5

  their secrets intact Judith Herman, Trauma and Recovery (London: HarperCollins, 1992), p. 110

  is creeping in Hacking, ‘The Making and Molding of Child Abuse’, pp. 259–60

  like a victim Ellen Bass and Laura Davis, The Courage to Heal, pp. 35–9

  and seek help ‘Incest Comes Out of the Dark’, Time Magazine, 7 Oct. 1991

  by him at five ‘Lies of the Mind’, Time Magazine, 29 Nov. 1993

  damned his research See Andrew Scull’s Madhouse for this full story

  them out psychically J. Laplanche and J.-B. Pontalis, The Language of Psychoanalysis (London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1973), pp. 465–9

  or went blank Phyllis Greenacre, ‘The Prepuberty Trauma in Girls’, Psychoanalytic Quarterly 19 (1950), pp. 298–317; see p. 301

  theory and treatment M.O. Tsaltas, ‘Changes in the Treatment of Abused Children’, Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis 22 (1994), pp. 533–43

  consulting room Shapiro, ‘The History of Feminism and Interpersonal Psychoanalysis’, pp. 223ff.

  damage inflicted Helena Kennedy, Eve was Framed (New York: Vintage, 2005), p. 142

  psychologically abused Herman, Trauma and Recovery, p. 118

  denial of women’s reality Ibid., p. 14

  rule their own homes Ibid., pp. 2–3

  after-effects of war See Allan Young, The Harmony of Illusions (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1997)

  from its effects N. Breslau and G. Davis, ‘Are Women at Greater Risk for PTSD than Men?’, at http://www.healthyplace.com/ Communities/anxiety/ women_ptsd.asp

  idealize or denigrate Herman, Trauma and Recovery, p. 111

  simply emulated See Hacking, ‘Making up People’, p. 23, for a summary version of these arguments

  had been made Hacking, Rewriting the Soul, pp. 42–3

  multiple personality Richard Ofshe and Ethan Watters, Making Monsters: False Memories, Psychotherapy and Sexual Hysteria (London: André Deutsch, 1995), p. 206

  not do or say? Quoted in ibid., pp. 210–11, from F.W. Putnam, Diagnosis and Treatment of Multiple Personality Disorder (New York: Guilford, 1989), pp. 79, 90

  taken the drink Jill Smolowe, ‘The 21 Faces of Sarah’, Time Magazine, 12 Nov. 1990

  unavailable to singletons http://www.angelworld.org/

  than one personality Quoted in Hacking, Rewriting the Soul, p. 18

  turned it into a habit ‘Understanding Dissociative Disorders’, at MIND, http://www.mind.org.uk/ Information/Booklets/Understanding/ Understanding+dissociative+ disorders.htm

  child sexual abuse M. Target, ‘The Recovered Memories Controversy’, International Journal of PsychoAnalysis 79 (1998), pp. 1015–8; see p. 1015

  perceive and protect Howard B. Levine, ‘Recovered Memories of Trauma’, International Journal of Psychoanalysis 79 (1998), pp. 187–90

  present unconscious Target, ‘The Recovered Memories Controversy’, p. 1020, with a reference to Joseph and Anne Marie Sandler

  neurotransmitter systems Peter D. Kramer, Listening to Prozac (London: Fourth Estate, 1994), pp. 119–21

  after the abuse Ibid., p. 118

  sufferers is high Bessel van der Kolk, ‘Post Traumatic Therapy in the Age of Neuroscience, Psychoanalytic Dialogues 12 (2002), pp. 381–92

  training or education Sally Satel, MD, ‘Bread and Shelter, Yes, Psychiatrists No’, New York Times, 29 Mar. 2005

  psychiatric services Anna Motz, The Psychology of Female Violence, pp. 117–21

  their imprisonment Independent, 2 Aug. 2006, p. 12

  from acting violently Lancet, vol. 358 (8 Dec. 2001)

  furious rebellion Herman, Trauma and Recovery, pp. 124–5

  and her children National Institute for Mental Health in England, ‘The Personality Disorder Capabilities Framework’, Department of Health, 2005

  high blood pressure See http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/#7

  15 Drugs

  external appearance Karl Menninger, The Vital Balance (New York: Viking, 1963), p. 2

  another prescription drug http://www.benzo.org.uk/jegshock.htm

  overreliance on drugs ‘Psychiatry on the Couch’, cover story, Time Magazine, 2 Apr. 1979

  constitute malpractice Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, pp. 309–10

  biochemical practice For a brilliant analysis see T.M. Luhrman, Of Two Minds (New York: Knopf, 2000)

  year as a sedative Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, pp. 201–3

  year of its sale Healy, The Creation of Psychopharmacology (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2001), p. 225 and passim

  committed by women Home Office, ‘Statistics on Women and the Criminal Justice System, 2003’, p. 3, available at http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/s95women03.pdf

  appearance of normalcy Elizabeth Wurtzel, Prozac Nation (London: Quartet Books, 1995), pp. 263–4

  trials in psychiatry Healy, The Creation of Psychopharmacology, pp. 47–9

  has a blackout effect Elizabeth Wurtzel, ‘Shrug Drug that Saved My Life’, Guardian, 21 Jan. 1999

  the enemy’s roof Lauren Slater, Prozac Diary (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1999), pp. 4–5

  learning from it all Kay Redfield Jamison, An Unquiet Mind (London: Picador, 1996), p. 88

  themselves on the child Lauren Slater, ‘Parents Help Babies Learn Lessons of Love’, Deseret News, 27 Mar. 2003

  to gloomy thoughts Berrios and Porter, A History of Clinical Psychiatry, p. 386

  and so dangerous ‘Mourning and Melancholia’, SE XIV, pp. 251–2

  difficulty sleeping Shorter, History of Psychiatry, p. 291

  post-traumatic stress disorder Royal College of Psychiatrists, ‘Antidepressants’, at http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/mentalhealthinformation/ mentalhealthproblems/depression/ antidepressants.aspx

  depressive by another Alix Smegel, ‘The Dictionary of Disorders’, New Yorker, 3 Jan. 2005, pp. 56–63; see p. 57

  from that disorder Ibid., p. 58

  pharmaceutical companies undertake See Healy, The AntiDepressant Era and Psychopharmacology

  their depression return Peta Bee, ‘Seven Exercises That Heal’, Guardian, 26 Aug. 2006

  non-human intervention Wurtzel, ‘Shrug Drug that Saved My Life’

  research and development Joan E. Gadzby, ‘Some Shocking Facts on Prescription Drugs’, at http://www.benzo.org.uk/jegshock.htm

  slightly fallen off Based on the Ofsen study of 4400 Medicaid records in 1999–2000 reported in the New York Times

  Epilogue

  drastic hormonal shifts Fiona Shaw, Out of Me (London: Viking, 1997), p. 42

  erased the questions Ibid., pp. 85–6

  go to a therapist See http://www.ynhh.org/healthlink/womens/womens_8 _03.html for recent work in the USA on women’s positive responses to psychotherapy for post-partum depression

  therapy they wanted Healthcare Commission report, 29 Sept.
2006

  and fare worse See Peter Fonagy et al., What Works for Whom (New York: Guilford Press, 2003); for a review of evaluations with control groups, see also ‘Medscape’, http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/457724_2

  such a study Rolf Sandell, Johan Blomberg, Anna Lazar, Jan Carlsson, Jeanette Broberg and Johan Schubert, ‘Varieties of Long-Term Outcome Among Patients in Psychoanalysis and Long-Term Psychotherapy: A Review of Findings in the Stockholm Outcome of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy Project (STOPPP)’, International Journal of PsychoAnalysis 81 (2000), pp. 921–42; see pp. 921–33

  and official records Ibid., pp. 922–3

  has been found here Peter Fonagy and Mary Target, ‘The History and Current Status of Outcome Research at the Anna Freud Centre’, Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 57 (2002), pp. 27–60

  emotions and minds See Darian Leader and David Corfield, Why Do People Get Ill? (London: Hamish Hamilton, 2006), for a fascinating account of relations between the mind and body in illness

  SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

  For reasons of space, this bibliography includes only key texts. Many of the eighteenth-and nineteenth-century sources are now available in digitized form from Project Gutenberg and other Internet sites. These are listed in the endnotes, as are most of the journals and articles I have consulted.

  Adelon, Alibert, Barbier, Bayle et al. (eds), Dictionnaire des sciences médicales par une société de médecins et de chirurgien, 60 vols (Paris: C.L.F. Pancoucke 1812–22)

  Andrews, Jonathan, and Digby, Anne (eds), Sex and Seduction, Class and Custody: Perspectives on Gender and Class in the History of British and Irish Psychiatry (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2004)

  Appignanesi, Lisa, and Forrester, John, Freud’s Women (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1992, new edition, Phoenix, 2005)

  Bair, Deirdre, Jung: A Biography (New York/London: Little, Brown, 2004)

  Bass, Ellen, and Thornton, Louise, I Never Told Anyone (New York: Harper & Row, 1983)

  Battie, William, A Treatise on Madness and Remarks on Dr Battie’s Treatise on Madness by John Monroe, reprinted from the 1758 edition with an introduction by R. Hunter and I. Macalpine (London: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1962)

  Bell, Quentin, Virginia Woolf (London: Hogarth, 1982)

  Bernikow, L., The American Women’s Almanac. An Inspiring and Irreverent Women’s History (New York: Berkeley Books, 1997)

  Berrios, German, and Porter, Roy (eds), A History of Clinical Psychiatry (London: Athlone Press, 1995)

  Bleuler, Eugen, Dementia Praecox or The Group of Schizophrenias, trans. Joseph Zinkin (New York: International Universities Press, 1955)

  Bloch, Ivan, The Sexual Life of Our Times in its Relation to Modern Civilization (London: Rebman, 1910)

  Bourneville, D.M., and Regnard, P., Iconographie photographique de la Salpêtrière, 3 vols (Paris: Progrès Médical, 1876–7)

  Bowlby, John, ‘Maternal Care and Mental Health’ (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1951)

  ——Attachment and Loss, 3 vols (London: Penguin Books, 1991)

  Burrows, George Man, Commentaries on the Causes, Forms, Symptoms and Treatment, Moral and Medical, of Insanity (London: Underwood, 1828)

  Burton, Sarah, A Double Life (London: Penguin Books, 2004)

  Bynum, W.F., Porter, Roy, and Shepherd, Michael (eds), Anatomy of Madness, 2 vols (London: Tavistock, 1985)

  Capote, Truman, ‘A Beautiful Child’, in Music for Chameleons (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1981)

  Carroy, Jacqueline, Hypnose, Suggestion et Psychologie (Paris: Presse Universitaire de France, 1991)

  Cartenuto, Aldo (ed.), A Secret Symmetry (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984)

  Charcot, J.M., The Clinician: The Tuesday Lessons, trans. with commentary by Christopher G. Goetz (New York: Raven Press, 1987)

  ——Clinical Lectures on the Diseases of the Nervous System, ed. Ruth Harris (London: Routledge, 1990)

  ——and Richer, Paul, Les démoniaques dans l’art (Paris: Macula, 1984)

  Chesler, Phyllis, Women and Madness (New York: Doubleday, 1972)

  Cheyne, George, The English Malady: Or, a Treatise of Nervous Diseases of All Kinds, ed. and with an introduction by Roy Porter (London: Routledge/Tavistock, 1991)

  Churchwell, Sarah, The Many Lives of Marilyn Monroe (London: Granta, 2004)

  Clay, John, R.D. Laing: A Divided Self (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1996)

  Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, Poems, ed. John Beer (London: Dent, 1974)

  Collins, Wilkie, The Woman in White (Oxford: OUP, 1991)

  Connell, Noreen, and Wilson, Cassandra (eds), Rape: The First Sourcebook for Women (New York: New American Library, 1974)

  Craig, Maurice, Nerve Exhaustion (London: J. & A. Churchill, 1922)

  Cullen, William, Clinical lectures, delivered in the years 1765 and 1766, by William Cullen, M.D…Taken in shorthand by a gentleman who attended (London, 1797)

  De Beauvoir, Simone, The Second Sex, trans. and ed. H.M. Parshley (London: Picador, 1988)

  Decker, Hannah, Freud in Germany (New York: International Universities Press, 1977)

  De Clérambault, Gaëtan Gatian, L’Erotomanie (Paris: Le Seuil, 2002)

  ——Passion érotique des étoffes chez la femme (Paris: Le Seuil, 2002)

  Didi-Huberman, Georges, Invention de l’hystérie (Paris: Macula, 1982)

  Dupré, Francis, La ‘solution’ du passage à l’acte: le double crime des soeurs Papin (Toulouse: Eres, 2003)

  Ellenberger, H.F., The Discovery of the Unconscious (London: Allen Lane, 1970)

  ——‘The Story of Hélène Preiswerk’, History of Psychiatry, vol. 2, part 1, no. 5 (Mar. 1991)

  Ellmann, Maud, The Hunger Artists (London: Virago, 1992)

  Esquirol, J.E.D., Des Maladies Mentales (Paris: Baillière, 1838)

  Farber, Stephen, and Green, Mark, Hollywood on the Couch (New York: Morrow, 1993)

  Fitzgerald, F. Scott, Tender Is the Night, preface by Malcolm Cowley (London: Penguin Books, 1988)

  ——Correspondence of F. Scott Fitzgerald, ed. Matthew J. Bruccoli and Margaret M. Duggan (London: Bloomsbury, 2002)

  ——and Fitzgerald, Zelda, Dear Scott, Dearest Zelda: The Love Letters of F. Scott and Zelda Fitzgerald, ed. Jackson R. Bryer and Cathy W. Barks (London: Bloomsbury, 2002)

  Fitzgerald, Zelda, The Collected Writings, ed. Matthew Bruccoli (New York: Collier, 1992)

  ——Save Me the Waltz (London: Vintage Classics, 2001)

  Flournoy, Théodore, From India to the Planet Mars, ed. and introduced by Sonu Shamdasani (New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1994)

  ——The Letters of William James and Théodore Flournoy, ed. R.C. Le Clair (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966)

  Foss, Arthur, and Trick, Kerith, St Andrew’s Hospital, Northampton: The First 150 Years (Cambridge: Granta Editions, 1989)

  Foucault, Michel, Madness and Civilization, trans. Richard Howard (London: Random House, 1965)

  ——The Birth of the Clinic, trans. A.M. Sheridan Smith (London: Tavistock, 1973)

  ——Interviews and Other Writings, 1977–1984 (London: Routledge, 1988)

  Freud, Anna, The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence. Writings, vol. II (New York: International Universities Press, 1966)

  ——The Writings of Anna Freud, vols I–VIII (New York: International Universities Press, 1966–81)

  ——Infants without Families. Reports on the Hampstead Nurseries 1939–1945, Writings, vol. III (New York: International Universities Press, 1973)

  Freud, Sigmund, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, 24 vols, ed. James Strachey in collaboration with Anna Freud, assisted by Alix Strachey and Alan Tyson (London: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1953–74)

  ——The Freud–Jung letters, ed. William McGuire, trans. Ralph Manheim and R.F.C. Hull, 1979 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974)

  Friedan, Betty, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Dell, 1963)

  Fromm-Reichmann, F., ‘Psychoanaly
tic and General Dynamic Conceptions of Theory and of Therapy–Differences and Similarities’, Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 2 (1954), pp. 711–21

  ——‘Psychotherapy and Schizophrenia’, American Journal of Psychiatry 111 (Dec. 1954)

  Gamwell, Lynn, and Tomes, Nancy, Madness in America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995)

  Garner, David, and Garfinkel, Paul (eds), Handbook of Psychotherapy for Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia (New York/London: Guilford Press, 1985)

  Georget, Etienne-Jean, De la physiologie du système nerveux (Paris: 1821)

  ——Discussions médico-légales sur la folie ou l’aliénation mentale (Paris: 1826)

  Gilman, Sander L., Seeing the Insane (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996)

  ——‘Obesity, the Jews and Psychoanalysis’, History of Psychiatry 17 (1), no. 65 (Mar. 2006), pp. 55–65

  Goldman, Arnold I., ‘Sex and the Emergence of Sexuality’, Critical Inquiry, vol. 14, no. 1 (Fall 1987)

  Goldstein, Jan, Console and Classify (Cambridge: CUP, 1987)

  Gordon, Richard A., Eating Disorders, 2nd edn (London: Blackwell, 2000)

  Green, Hannah, I Never Promised You a Rose Garden (London: Pan Books, 1991)

  Greenacre, Phyllis, ‘The Prepuberty Trauma in Girls’, Psychoanalytic Quarterly 19:190 (1950), pp. 298–317

  Greenson, Ralph R., The Technique and Practice of Psychoanalysis (London: Hogarth Press, 1973)

  ——Explorations in Psychoanalysis (New York: International Universities Press, 1978) Greer, Germaine, The Female Eunuch (London: Granada, 1971) Grosskurth, Phyllis, Melanie Klein (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1986) Hacking, Ian, ‘The Making and Molding of Child Abuse’, Critical Inquiry, vol. 17, no. 2 (Winter 1991)

  ——Rewriting the Soul (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995)

  ——The Social Construction of What? (Cambridge, Mass./London: Harvard University Press, 1998)

  ——‘Kinds of People: Moving Targets’, British Academy Lecture, 11 Apr. 2006 (Web version)

  ——‘Making up People’, London Review of Books, vol. 28, no. 16 (17 Aug. 2006), pp. 23–5

  Hale Jr, Nathan G., The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States (NewYork/Oxford: OUP, 1995)