15. Increase Mather, father of Cotton Mather, served Harvard College as acting president from 1685 to 1686, as rector from 1686 to 1692, and again as president from 1692 to 1701. Richard Hofstadter, Academic Freedom in the Age of the College (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 82–83; Robert H. Murray, Dublin University and the New World: A Memorial Discourse Preached in the Chapel of Trinity College, Dublin, May 23, 1921 (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1921); Samuel Eliot Morison, Builders of the Bay Colony (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), 269–88.
16. Samuel Eliot Morison, “The History of Harvard College,” in The History and Traditions of Harvard College (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Crimson, 1936), esp. 11–12; Rolph, “Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and the Puritan Movements,” 334.
17. New England’s First Fruits; In Respect, First of the Conversion of Some, Conversion of Divers Others, Preparation of Sundry of the Indians. 2. Of the Progresse of Learning, in the Colledge at Cambridge in Massachusetts Bay. With Other Special Matters Concerning that Country (London: R.O. and G.D. for Henry Overton, 1643); Michael P. Clark, The Eliot Tracts: With Letter from John Eliot to Thomas Thorowgood and Richard Baxter (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003); George Parker Winship, The Eliot Indian Tracts (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925).
18. Kathleen J. Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1500–1650 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996), 23–28; John D. Daniels, “The Indian Population of North America,” William and Mary Quarterly, April 1992, 298–320; S. F. Cook, The Indian Population of New England in the Seventeenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 1–12; John Eliot and Thomas Mayhew, Tears of Repentance: Or, a Further Narrative of the Progress of the Gospel Amongst the Indians in New England … (London: Peter Cole, 1653), esp. 33–36.
19. “An Act for the Promoting and Propagating the Gospel of Jesus Christ in New England” (1649).
20. Charles Firth, Oliver Cromwell and the Rule of the Puritans in England (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1900), 394–406; “Cash in the Hands of Mr. Richard Floyd, Trea[sur]er of the Corporation for New England,” Corporation for New England Records, 1653–1685, Box 1, Massachusetts Historical Society; William Kellaway, The New England Company, 1649–1776 (London: Longmans, 1961); see “To the Christian Reader,” in Henry Whitfield, Strength out of Weaknesse; Or a Glorious Manifestation of the Further Progresse of the Gospel among the Indians of New-England. Held Forth in Sundry Letters from Divers Ministers and Others to the Corporation Established by Parliament for Promoting the Gospel among the Heathen in New-England; And to Particular Members thereof Since the Last Treatise to that Effect (London: M. Simmons for John Blague, 1652); C. V. Wedgwood, A Coffin for King Charles: The Trial and Execution of Charles I (New York: Macmillan, 1964); Maurice Ashley, Charles I and Oliver Cromwell: A Study in Contrasts and Comparisons (London: Methuen, 1987); Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), 34–35.
21. Harvard College was incorporated in 1650. William B. Weeden, Economic and Social History of New England, 1620–1789 (New York: Hillary House, 1963), I:41, 140; William B. Weeden, Indian Money as a Factor in New England Civilization (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science, 1884), 24; The Day-Breaking, If Not the Sun-Rising of the Gospell with the Indians in New-England (London: Rich Cotes for Fulk Clifton, 1647), 24; Thomas Shepard, The Clear Sun-shine of the Gospel Breaking Forth upon the Indians in New-England. Or, an Historicall Narration of Gods Wonderful Workings upon Sundry of the Indians, Both Chief Governors and Common-People, in Bringing Them to a Willing and Desired Submission to the Ordinances of the Gospel; and Framing Their Hearts to an Earnest Inquirie after the Knowledge of God the Father, and of Jesus Christ the Saviour of the World (London: R. Cotes for John Bellamy, 1648), 6; Stock, “Résumé of Christian Missions Among the American Indians,” 370; Benjamin Pierce, A History of Harvard University, from Its Foundation, in the Year 1636, to the Period of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Brown, Shattuck, 1833), 28; Alden T. Vaughan, New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620–1675 (1965; Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995), 280–88; “Historical Sketches of Harvard College,” Harvard Register, October 1827, 248; Samuel Eliot Morison, Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936), I:5–8, 42–44, 340–60.
22. Charles Chauncy, God’s Mercy, Shewed to His People in Giving Them a Faithful Ministry and Schooles of Learning for the Continual Supplyes Thereof (Cambridge: Samuel Green, 1655), esp. 20. The boys were tested in 1659 and 1660. John Eliot, A Further Accompt of the Progresse of the Gospel amongst the Indians in New-England, and of the Means used Effectually to Advance the Same. Set Forth in Certaine Letters Sent from Thence Declaring a Purpose of Printing the Scriptures in the Indian Tongue into Which They Are Already Translated (London: M. Simmons for the Corporation of New-England, 1659), postscript; John Eliot, A Further Account of the Progress of the Gospel amongst the Indians in New England: Being a Relation of the Confessions Made by Several Indians (in the Presence of the Elders and Members of Several Churches) in Order to Their Admission into Church-Fellowship (London: John Macock, 1660), postscript; Morison, Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century, I:354.
23. Daniel Mandell, “‘To Live More Like My Christian English Neighbors’: Natick Indians in the Eighteenth Century,” William and Mary Quarterly, October 1991, 555; New England’s First Fruits, 2–3; Edward Winslow, The Glorious Progress of the Gospell, Amongst the Indians of New England. Manifested by Three Letters, under the Hand of That Famous Instrument of the Lord Mr. John Eliot, and Another from Mr. Thomas Mayhew Jun: Both Preachers of the Word, as Well to the English as Indians in New England (London: For Hannah Allen, 1649), 7–8; Neal Salisbury, “Red Puritans: The ‘Praying Indians’ of Massachusetts Bay and John Eliot,” William and Mary Quarterly, January 1974, 32–48; Stock, “Résumé of Christian Missions Among the American Indians,” 372–73; Harral Ayres, The Great Trail of New England (Boston: Meador, 1940), 33–34; John Eliot, A Late and Further Manifestation of the Progress of the Gospel amongst the Indians in New-England. Declaring Their Constant Love and Zeal to the Truth: With a Readinesse to Give Accompt of Their Faith and Hope; as of Their Desires in Church Communion to Be Partakers of the Ordinances of Christ (London: M.S., 1655), 4; Daniel Gookin, Historical Collections of the Indians in New England, of Their Several Nations, Numbers, Customs, Manners, Religion and Government, before the English Planted There (Boston: Belknap and Hall, 1792), 55–67; John Eliot to Robert Boyle, 6 July 1669, in Michael Hunter, et al., eds., The Correspondence of Robert Boyle (London: Pickering and Chatto, 2001), IV:137–40.
24. “The Lawes of the Colledge Published Publiquely Before the Students of Harvard College, May 4, 1655,” Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts (Boston: By the Society, 1935), XXXI:229–33; Ann M. Little, “‘Shoot That Rogue, for He Hath an Englishman’s Coat On!’: Cultural Cross-Dressing on the New England Frontier, 1620–1760,” New England Quarterly, June 2001, 239–48; Timothy J. Shannon, “Dressing for Success on the Mohawk Frontier: Hendrick, William Johnson, and the Indian Fashion,” William and Mary Quarterly, January 1996; Gookin, Historical Collections of the Indians in New England, 32–36.
25. The trustees buried Benjamin Larnel with money from the fund for Indian education. Peter Burke, Languages and Communities in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 15–33; Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991), 77–80; Morison, Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century, I:352–57; Josiah Quincy, The History of Harvard University (Cambridge, MA: J. Owen, 1840), I:443–44; entry for 27 September 1714, Records of the Harvard Corporation, 1650–1992, I:96, Harvard University Archives. On the manipulations and deception in the publication of these Indian addresses and letters, see Wolfgang Hochbruck and Beatrix Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefac
tores’: Native American Students and Two Seventeenth-Century Texts in the University Tradition,” Studies in American Indian Literatures, Summer/Fall 1992, 42–44.
26. Samuel G. Drake, ed., The History of King Philip’s War, by the Rev. Increase Mather D.D. Also, a History of the Same War, by the Rev. Cotton Mather, D.D. (Albany, NY: J. Munsell, 1862), 37–43. The translation is available in Hochbruck and Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefactores,’” 38–39.
27. George Francis Dow, Slave Ships and Slaving (1927; Mineola, NY: Dover, 2002), 267; “Notes on Early Ship-Building in Massachusetts, Communicated by Capt. George Henry Preble,” New-England Historical and Genealogical Register and Antiquarian Journal, January 1871, 17; James Kendall Hosmer, ed., Winthrop’s Journal, 1630–1649 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1908), I:227–28; Greene, “Slave-holding New England and Its Awakening,” 496; David Jaffee, People of the Washusett: Greater New England in History and Memory, 1630–1860 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 64–68; Henry C. Kittredge, Cape Cod: Its People and Their History (1930; Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968), 63; Katherine A. Grandjean, “New World Tempests; Environment, Scarcity, and the Coming of the Pequot War,” William and Mary Quarterly, January 2011, 75–100.
28. Samuel Maverick—an Anglican minister from a family that settled Noddle’s Island and Dorchester-bought three of these enslaved black people. Hosmer, ed., Winthrop’s Journal, I:260; Peter Oliver, The Puritan Commonwealth: An Historical Overview of the Puritan Government in Massachusetts in Its Civil and Ecclesiastical Relations from Its Rise to the Abrogation of Its First Charter (Boston: Little, Brown, 1856), 419; Dow, Slave Ships and Slaving, 267; Daniel C. Eaton, “The Family of Nathaniel Eaton, of Cambridge, Mass.” Papers of the New Haven Colony Historical Society (New Haven: For the Society, 1888), IV:185–92; Samuel Eliot Morison, The Founding of Harvard College (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1935), 231–40, 389; Morison, “History of Harvard College,” 11–13.
29. Morison, Founding of Harvard College, 231–40; Hosmer, ed., Winthrop’s Journal, I:310–14; Morison, Builders of the Bay Colony, 188–92.
30. Morison, Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century, I:31–39; Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters, 99; Hosmer, ed., Winthrop’s Journal, I:221–28.
31. Hosmer, ed., Winthrop’s Journal, II:227; George Downing to John Winthrop Jr., 26 August 1645, Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Series 4 (Boston: For the Society, 1863), VI:536; Robert C. Winthrop, Life and Letters of John Winthrop, from His Embarkation for New England in 1630, with the Charter Company of the Massachusetts Bay, to His Death in 1649 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1869), II:263, 360–61; Quincy, History of Harvard University, I:459; Sibley’s Harvard Graduates, I:1; E. T. Fisher, trans., Report of a French Protestant Refugee, in Boston, 1687 (Brooklyn, NY, 1868), 20.
32. George Downing to John Winthrop Jr., 26 August 1645; Karen Ordahl Kupperman, “Errand to the Indies: Puritan Colonization from Providence Island Through the Western Design,” William and Mary Quarterly, January 1988, 70–99; Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Providence Island, 1630–1641: The Other Puritan Colony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), esp. 171–80; Sibley’s Harvard Graduates, I:28–51; Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713 (New York: Norton, 1973), 84–87, 336; Winthrop, Life and Letters of John Winthrop, II:360–61.
33. George Downing to John Winthrop Jr., 26 August 1645; Jeremiah Dummer, A Defence of the New-England Charters (Boston: B. Green, 1745), 6–7; Weeden, Economic and Social History of New England, I:148–49, 244–45.
34. Edgar J. McManus, Black Bondage in the North (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1973), 72–87; Cotton Mather, An Abstract of the Lawes in the Province of the Massachusetts-Bay, New-England, Against those Disorders, the Suppression whereof is Desired and Pursued by Them that Wish Well to the Worthy Designs of Reformation (Boston: Timothy Green, 1704); A Report of the Record Commissioners of the City of Boston, Containing the Records of Boston Selectmen, 1716–1736 (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1885), 8–9, 42–43, 59–60, 82–83, 109; Charles J. Hoadly, ed., The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, from May, 1762, to October, 1767, inclusive (Hartford, CT: Case, Lockwood, and Brainard, 1850–), IV:32–41, 375–76, 437–38, V:52–53, VI:390–91; Abner Cheney Goodell Jr., The Trial and Execution, for Petit Treason, of Mark and Phillis, Slaves of Capt. John Codman, Who Murdered Their Master at Charlestown, Mass., in 1755; for Which the Man Was Hanged and Gibbeted, and the Woman Was Burned to Death. Including, also, Some Account of Other Punishments by Burning in Massachusetts (Cambridge, MA: John Wilson and Son, 1883), 30–33; “The Case of Maria in the Court of Assistants in 1681,” Transactions: Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts (Boston: By the Society, 1904), VI:323–36; see entries for slave sales in the Boston News-Letter from April 1704 through April 1714.
35. At the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution, the New England merchant George Cabot, a Harvard benefactor, warned Alexander Hamilton that the United States economy could not survive the loss of its French West Indian markets, where “nearly one half of the whole fish is consumed.” W. E. B. DuBois, The Suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the United States of America 1638–1870 (New York: Longmans, Green, 1904), 27–29; Samuel Eliot Morison, The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783–1860 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1921), 11–12; John Romeyn Brodhead, History of the State of New York (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1871), II:337; Henry W. Cunningham, “Note on William Sanford,” Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts (Boston: Privately published, 1905), VII:203; Eugene Aubrey Stratton, Plymouth Colony: Its History and People, 1620–1691 (Salt Lake City, UT: Ancestry, 1986), 187–89; Greene, “Slave-holding New England and Its Awakening,” 496–97; S. D. Smith, Slavery, Family, and Gentry Capitalism in the British Atlantic: The World of the Lascelles, 1648–1834 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), esp. 21; Cabot to Hamilton, 18 December 1791, in Henry Cabot Lodge, Life and Letters of George Cabot (Boston: Little, Brown, 1877), 48–51; Quincy, History of Harvard University, vol. II, appendices.
36. H. P. Biggar, The Early Trading Companies of New France (New York: Argonaut, 1965), 66–93.
37. Brock, ed., Abstract of the Proceedings of the Virginia Company of London, 1619–1624, I:9n–10n; Fausz, “Powhatan Uprising of 1622,” esp. 278–343.
38. New England’s First Fruits, Parts 1–2.
39. George F. Willison, Saints and Strangers: Being the Lives of the Pilgrim Fathers & Their Families, with Their Friends & Foes; & an Account of Their Posthumous Wanderings in Limbo, Their Final Resurrection & Rise to Glory, & the Strange Pilgrimages of Plymouth Rock (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1945), 198–99; Morison, Builders of the Bay Colony, 13; Bradford Smith, Bradford of Plymouth (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1951), 166–67; J. Franklin Jameson, ed., Johnson’s Wonder-Working Providence, 1628–1651 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1910), 33–36. The latter was originally published in England as Edward Johnson, A History of New-England, From the English Planting in the Yeere 1628 Until the Yeere 1652 … (London: Nathaniel Brooke, 1654).
40. Ian K. Steele, Warpaths: Invasions of North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 91–93; Laurence M. Hauptman, “The Pequot War and Its Legacies,” in Laurence M. Hauptman and James D. Wherry, eds., The Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 69–80; Colin G. Calloway, New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 92–98; John Underhill, Newes from America; or, a New and Experimentall Discoverie of New England; Containing a True Relation of Their War-like Proceedings these Two Years Last Past, with a Figure of the Indian Fort, or Palizado (London: J.D. for Peter Cole, 1638), 39.
41. Samuel de Champlain used firearms during the Battle of Lake Champlain in 1609, likely the first use of such weapons in the Northeast. Da
vid E. Jones, Native North American Armor, Shields, and Fortifications (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004), 48–49; Captain John Underhill, “The Pequot War (1635),” in John Gould Curtis, ed., American History Told by Contemporaries: Era of Colonization, 1492–1689 (New York: Macmillan, 1917), I:439–44; Alfred A. Cave, The Pequot War (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), esp. 13–48; Harold L. Peterson, Arms and Armor in Colonial America, 1526–1783 (Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole, 1956), 7–49, 69–82; Steele, Warpaths, 91–93; Margaret Connell Szasz, Scottish Highlanders and Native Americans: Indigenous Education in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007), 187–89; Hauptman, “The Pequot War and Its Legacies,” 69–80; James Shepard, Connecticut Soldiers in the Pequot War of 1637, with Proof of Service, a Brief Record for Identification, and References to Various Publications in Which Further Data May Be Found (Meriden, CT: Journal Publishing, 1913); Calloway, New Worlds for All, 92–98; Carl Parcher Russell, Guns on the Early Frontiers: A History of Firearms from Colonial Times Through the Years of the Western Fur Trade (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957); Otis Tufton Mason, North American Bows, Arrows, and Quivers, Smithsonian Report for 1893 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1894). On the impact of guns on military institutions and social life in West Africa, see John K. Thornton, Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800 (London: University College London Press, 1999).
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