42. Morison, Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century, I:31–34; Margaret Ellen Newell, “The Changing Nature of Indian Slavery in New England, 1670–1720,” in Colin G. Calloway and Neal Salisbury, eds., Reinterpreting New England Indians and the Colonial Experience (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2003), 107–9.
43. Salisbury, “Red Puritans,” 29–36; Elise M. Brenner, “To Pray or Be Prey: That Is the Question: Strategies for Cultural Autonomy of Massachusetts Praying Towns,” Ethnohistory, Spring 1980, 137–48.
44. John Winthrop to Robert Boyle, ca. 1662, and John Winthrop to Robert Boyle, 15 October 1674, in Hunter et al., eds., Correspondence of Robert Boyle, II:57–58, IV:393–94; Kellaway, New England Company, 173–74.
45. For a comprehensive account of the war, see Lepore, Name of War; John Easton, “A Relacion of the Indyan Warre” (1675), in Charles Henry Lincoln, ed., Narratives of the Indian Wars, 1675–1699 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 7–12; Morison, Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century, I:349, II:422n; David Pulsifer, ed., Records of the Colony of New Plymouth in New England: Deeds, &c., 1620–1651 (Boston: William White, 1861), I:237.
46. In his history of the conflict, Cotton Mather praised an enslaved African for alerting the English of the Wampanoag plot. After the Wampanoag killed Thomas Willett, they captured his servant. Knowing Algonquian, the black man discovered their military plans. In July 1674 he escaped and alerted the English that the Indians were preparing to attack Taunton. “There was a special providence in that Negroes escape,” Rev. Mather wrote, without reflecting upon the moral tension created by a captive slave escaping his captors to rescue his enslavers. Of course, such providence by definition favored the English, not Africans. Lepore, Name of War, 23–26; Drake, ed., History of King Philip’s War, 177–78; Thomas Church, The Entertaining History of King Philip’s War, Which Began in the Month of June, 1675. As Also of Expeditions More Lately Made Against the Common Enemy, and Indian Rebels, in the Eastern Parts of New-England: With Some Account of the Divine Providence Towards Col. Benjamin Church (Boston, 1716); “The Book of Indian Records for Their Lands,” in Pulsifer, ed., Records of the Colony of New Plymouth in New England, I:237; Easton, “Relacion of the Indyan Warre,” 7–17; Samuel G. Drake, The Book of the Indians of North America: Comprising Details in the Lives of About Five Hundred Chiefs and Others, the Most Distinguished among Them. Also, a History of Their Wars; their Manners and Customs; Speeches of Orators, &c., From Their First Being Known to Europeans to the Present Time. Exhibiting Also an Analysis of the Most Distinguished Authors Who Have Written upon the Great Question of the Peopling of America (Boston: Josiah Drake, 1835), III:9–12; James P. Ronda and Jeanne Ronda, “The Death of John Sassamon: An Exploration in Writing New England Indian History,” American Indian Quarterly, Summer 1974, 91–102; Jenny Hale Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 95–100; William Apess, Eulogy on King Philip, as Pronounced at the Odeon, in Federal Street, Boston, by the Rev. William Apes, an Indian (Boston: By the author, 1836); see the account book and notes, “Thomas Chesholme, His Booke, June 5 1655,” Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts (Boston: By the Society, 1935), XXXI:150n; Morison, Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century, I:352–54; minutes of the New England Company, 5 February 1659–19 March 1659, in The New England Company of 1649 and John Eliot: The Publications of the Prince Society (Boston: For the Society, 1920), 51–54.
47. Calloway, New Worlds for All, 96–97; Charles I, By the King: A Proclamation Forbidding the Disorderly Trading with the Salvages in New England in America, Especially the Furnishing of the Natives in Those and Other Parts of America by the English with Weapons, and Habiliments of War (London: Robert Barker, 1630); David Pulsifer, ed., Records of the Colony of New Plymouth in New England: Laws, 1623–1682 (Boston: William White, 1861); Franklin Bowditch Dexter, ed., Ancient Town Records: New Haven Town Records, 1649–1662 (New Haven: For the Society, 1917), I:174–75; “Ordinance of the Directors of New Netherland, Prohibiting the Sale of Firearms, etc., to Indians, and Requiring Vessels Sailing to or from Fort Orange, the South River, or Fort Hope, to Take Out Clearances,” passed 31 March 1639, in E. B. O’Callaghan, comp., Laws and Ordinances of New Netherland, 1638–1674. Compiled and Translated from the Original Dutch Records in the Office of the Secretary of State, Albany, N.Y. (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1868), 18–19; Russell, Guns on the Early Frontiers, 10–12; Don Higginbotham, “The Military Institutions of Colonial America: The Rhetoric and the Reality,” in John A. Lynn, ed., Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 136; Patrick M. Malone, “Changing Military Technology Among the Indians of Southern New England, 1600–1677,” American Quarterly, March 1973, 50–63.
48. Morison, Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century, II:420–23. Also see Urian Oakes, “Salutatory Oration: Commencement 1677,” Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, XXXI:405–36.
49. Several veterans of the Pequot Massacre participated in King Philip’s War. Carole Doreski, ed., Massachusetts Officers and Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Conflicts (Boston: New England Historic Genealogical Society, 1982), 241; Sibley’s Harvard Graduates, I:1, 194–208, II:13–36, 489–98; John Mason to Capt. Allyn, 27 April 1676, Wyllys Papers, 1633–1829, I:58B, Connecticut Historical Society; Eric B. Schultz and Michael J. Tougias, King Philip’s War: The History and Legacy of America’s Forgotten Conflict (Woodstock, VT: Countryman, 1999), 210–18; William Bradford, A Letter from Major William Bradford to the Reverend John Cotton, Written at Mount Hope on July 21, 1675 … (Providence: Society of Colonial Wars in the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 1914); George Madison Bodge, Soldiers in King Philip’s War: Being a Critical Account of That War with a Concise History of the Indian Wars of New England from 1620–1677 … (Boston: For the author, 1906), 119–26, 218–31, 261–65.
50. Sibley’s Harvard Graduates, I:318–19, 395, II:138–39, 193–95, 522–23; Bodge, Soldiers in King Philip’s War, esp. 325–41; Mary White Rowlandson, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God, together, with the Faithfulness of His Promises Displayed: Being a Narrative of the Captivity and Restauration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson: Commended by Her, to all that Desires to Know the Lords Doings to, and Dealings with Her. Especially to Her Dear Children and Relations/ Written by Her Own Hand for Her Private Use, and Now Made Public at the Earnest Desire of Some Friends, and for the Benefits of the Afflicted (Cambridge: Samuel Green, 1682); June Namias, White Captives: Gender and Ethnicity on the American Frontier (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 7–29; Alden T. Vaughan and Edward W. Clark, eds., Puritans Among the Indians: Accounts of Captivity and Redemption, 1676–1724 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1981), 1–28.
51. In the aftermath of that deadly conflict, the praying towns declined in number. The English even neglected the Natick mission. In the next century, Cotton Mather visited the village “that we may Inspect the Condition of the Christian Indians there, and Revive Religion, and Good Order among them, which have been under a grievous Decay.” Douglas William Leach, A Rhode Islander Reports on King Philip’s War: The Second William Harris Letter of August, 1676 (Providence: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1963), esp. 82–86; Richard Slotkin and James K. Folsom, eds., So Dreadful a Judgment: Puritan Responses to King Philip’s War, 1676–1677 (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1978), 370–76; Plymouth Church Records, 1620–1859 (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1975), I:152–53; Church, Entertaining History of King Philip’s War, esp. 190–94; Lyle Koehler, A Search for Power: The “Weaker Sex” in Seventeenth Century New England (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1980), 112; Colin Calloway, ed., After King Philip’s War: Presence and Persistence in Indian New England (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1997), 1–3; Kristina Bross, Dry Bones and Indian S
ermons: Praying Indians in Colonial America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), 186; Report of a French Protestant Refugee, in Boston, 1687, 40; William R. Manierre, ed., The Diary of Cotton Mather D.D., F.R.S. for the Year 1712 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1964), 53; Mandell, “‘To Live More Like My Christian English Neighbors,’” 552–53; Increase Mather, A Relation of the Troubles Which Have Happened in New-England, by Reason of the Indians There: From the Year 1614 to the Year 1675. Wherein the Frequent Conspiracies of the Indians to Cut Off the English, and the Wonderfull Providence of God, in Disappointing Their Devices, is Declared (Boston: John Foster, 1677); Samuel A. Green, ed., Diary of Increase Mather, March, 1675–December, 1676, Together with Extracts from Another Diary by Him, 1674–1687 (Cambridge, MA: John Wilson and Son, 1900), 50–52.
52. Nathaniel Saltonstall, A Continuation of the State of New-England; Being a Farther Account of the Indian Warr, and the Engagement betwixt the Joynt Forces of the United English Collonies and the Indians, on the 19th of December, 1675, with the True Number of the Slain and Wounded, and the Transactions of the English Army since the Said Fight. With All Other Passages That Have Hapned from the 10th of November, 1675 to the 8th of February 1676. Together with an Account of the Intended Rebellion of the Negroes in Barbadoes (London: T.M., 1676), reprinted in Lincoln, ed., Narratives of the Indian Wars, 1675–1699, 71–74.
53. John Saffin kept a rather eclectic daybook that includes some material on Bristol. As the town was being established, Saffin attempted a tribute to Harvard’s Charles Chauncy, who had died a few years before the war: “Chancey the School-man: Great Divine whose faime / First took its Rise, and from Grand Cambridg[e] came / Who in his pregnant Braine was wont to carrie / Arts Master-pieces like a liberarie.” Patricia E. Rubertone, Grave Undertakings: An Archaeology of Roger Williams and the Narragansett Indians (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001), esp. 16; Benjamin Bourne, An Account of the Settlement of the Town of Bristol, in the State of Rhode-Island: And of the Congregational Church Therein, with the Succession of Pastors from Its Origin to the Present Times; Together with the Act of Incorporation of the Catholic Congregational Society, and the Rules Established in Said Society (Providence: Bennett Wheeler, 1785), 2–4; Wilfred H. Munro, The History of Bristol, R.I.: The Story of the Mount Hope Lands, from the Visit of the Northmen to the Present Time (Providence: J. A. and R. A. Reid, 1880), 53–93; George Howe, Mount Hope: A New England Chronicle (New York: Viking, 1959), 21–102; Newell, “Changing Nature of Indian Slavery in New England,” 118–27; Samuel Sewall, The Selling of Joseph: A Memorial (Boston: Bartholomew Green and John Allen, 1700); John Saffin, Brief Candid Answer to a Late Printed Sheet, Entituled, the Selling of Joseph: Whereunto is Annexed, a True and Particular Narrative by Way of Vindication of the Author’s Dealing with and Prosecution of His Negro Man Servant, for His Vile and Exorbitant Behaviour Towards His Master, and His Tenant Thomas Shepard; Which Hath Been Wrongfully Represented to Their Prejudice and Defamation (Boston, 1701); John Saffin, “Notebook, 1665–1708,” 13–14, 76, American Antiquarian Society.
54. William Kellaway argued that the very decision to emphasize Indian education in the college mission was “likely opportunist,” intended to increase support in Parliament and allow Harvard to access funds from the New England Company. Samuel Eliot Morison disdainfully described the Indian Bible as the “least useful” publication that came from the Indian College, this “unwanted structure.” Gookin, Historical Collections of the Indians in New England, 34–36; Quincy, History of Harvard University, I:352–56; Minutes of the New England Company, 30 September 1685, in New England Company of 1649 and John Eliot, xliii, 206–9; Increase Mather to John Leusden, 12 July 1687, in Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christi Americana: Or, the Ecclesiastical History of New-England, from Its First Planting in the Year 1620 unto the Year of Our Lord, 1698 (London, Thomas Parkhurst 1702), III:194–95; Morison, Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century, I:26–34, 345–60; Albert Ehrenfried, A Chronicle of Boston Jewry: From the Colonial Settlement to 1900 (Privately printed, 1963), 99–101; Jaspar Dankers and Peter Sluyter, Journal of a Voyage to New York and a Tour in Several of the American Colonies in 1679–80, trans. and ed. Henry C. Murphy (Brooklyn: Long Island Historical Society, 1867), 382–84; John Wright, Early Bibles of America (London: Gay and Bird, 1893), 24. Kellaway, New England Company, 109–10.
55. Entries for 6 November 1693, 2 September 1695, and 7 April 1698, Records of the Harvard Corporation, I:20, 27, 34.
56. Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Governor and the Rebel: A History of Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1957); Alfred A. Cave, Lethal Encounters: Englishmen and Indians in Colonial Virginia (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2011), 147–65.
57. See the Royal Charter of the College of William and Mary in Virginia, 8 February 1693, Miscellaneous American Materials from the Lambeth Palace Library, Virginia Historical Society; Records of James Blair’s education from Marischal College, Folder 3, Box 1, Special Collections, Swem Library, College of William and Mary; “Earliest Extant Land Patents (and Leases) of the Colony of Virginia,” The Researcher (1927), I and II; “Copies of the Rent Rolls of the Several County’s [sic] for the Year 1704,” Virginia Historical Society; Wilford Kale, “Educating a Colony: The First Trustees of the College of William and Mary in Virginia,” Colonial Williamsburg, Autumn 2000, 25–28; Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (Boston: H. Sprague, 1802), 207–8; land survey for the College of William and Mary and map of the town of Williamsburg, 2 June 1699, MR 1/2067, National Archives, United Kingdom.
58. As he was establishing Indian education on campus, President Blair proposed new uses for enslaved Africans, including shifting silk production to Virginia, where this labor-intensive process “might be perform’d by Negro Children, that are now so many useless Hands.” Henry Hartwell, James Blair, and Edward Chilton, The Present State of Virginia, and the College (London: John Wyat, 1727), 4, 60–77, 93; Col. Francis Nicholson to Archbishop Tenison, 22 May 1710, Misc. American Materials from the Lambeth Palace Library; Gov. Francis Nicholson to John Locke, 30 March 1697, James Blair Papers, Box 1, Folder 4, Special Collections, Swem Library, College of William and Mary; Douglas Sloan, The Scottish Enlightenment and the American College Ideal (New York: Teachers College Press, 1971), 20n–21n; Margaret Connell Szasz, Indian Education in the American Colonies, 1607–1783 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1988), 68–74; Tyler, College of William and Mary, 12–67.
59. Later in the century, the governors of William and Mary began affording some educational training to the college slaves. Hugh Jones, The Present State of Virginia. Giving a Particular and Short Account of the Indian, English, and Negroe Inhabitants of that Colony. Shewing Their Religion, Manners, Government, Trade, Way of Living, &c. With a Description of the Country. From Whence is Inferred a Short View of Maryland and North Carolina. To Which are Added, Schemes and Propositions for the Better Promotion of Learning, Religion, Inventions, Manufactures, and Trade in Virginia, and the Other Plantations. For the Information of the Curious, and for the Service of Such as are Engaged in the Propagation of the Gospel and Advancement of Learning, and for the Use of All Persons Concerned in the Virginia Trade and Plantation (London: J. Clarke, 1724), 1–94; Tyler, College of William and Mary, 21–23; “The Humble Petition [to Lieutenant Governor Edmund Andros] of the Clergy of Virginia at a General Meeting at James City, June 25th, 1696,” James Blair Papers, Box 1, Folder 3; Terry L. Meyers, “A First Look at the Worst: Slavery and Race Relations at the College of William and Mary,” William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal, April 2008, 1141–68.
60. “Present Rules and Methods setled and agreed on by us the Rt honble Richd Earle of Burlington and the Rt Reverend father in God Henry Lord Bishop of London for the disposition of the Rents and profits of the Mannor of Brafferton in the County of York towards the propagateing the Gospel in Virginia in persuance of an authority to us given in and by a de
cree in the high court of Chancery beareing date the 8th day of Aug 1695 …,” and “Accounts Folder,” Brafferton Estate Collection, Box 3, Folder 1, and Box 1, Special Collections, Swem Library, College of William and Mary.
61. “The Memorial of What Col. Spotswood, Gov. of Virginia Sent to the Bishop of London in Relacion to the Education of Indian Children at William & Mary Colledge and ye Conversion of the Neighboring Nations, to be Laid before the Queen,” 8 November 1712, Brafferton Estate Collection; Tyler, College of William and Mary, 21–22; “Notes from the Journal of the House of Burgesses, 1712–1726,” William and Mary Quarterly, April 1913, 249.
CHAPTER 2: “BONFIRES OF THE NEGROS”
1. Alexander Hamilton to Edward Stevens, 11 November 1769, the correspondence between Alexander Hamilton and Nicholas, John, Henry, and Tileman Cruger, 1771–1772, and the scattered records of Hamilton’s matriculation in Elizabethtown and at King’s College, in Harold C. Syrett, ed., The Papers of Alexander Hamilton (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), I:4–42; Catalogue of the Governors, Trustees, and Officers and of the Alumni and Other Graduates, of Columbia College (Originally King’s College), in the City of New York, from 1754 to 1882 (New York: Printed for the College, 1882), 7–10; Milton Halsey Thomas, comp., Columbia University Officers and Alumni, 1754–1857 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1936), 8, 98; Ron Chernow, Alexander Hamilton (New York: Penguin, 2004), 29–38; Willard Sterne Randall, Alexander Hamilton: A Life (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 45–50.
2. Virginia D. Harrington, The New York Merchant on the Eve of the Revolution (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1964), 22–38; James Thomas Flexner, John Singleton Copley (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1948), 51–52; Cynthia A. Kierner, Traders and Gentlefolk: The Livingstons of New York, 1675–1790 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), 157–59. Gabriel Ludlow was born in New Castle, Somerset, England, in 1663. On 24 November 1694, he arrived in New York to claim a 4,000-acre grant in Orange County. He became one of the leading merchants of New York City, a founding vestryman of Trinity Church, clerk of the assembly, and a slaveholder. See the papers of “Ludlow, Gabriel, 1663–1736, and descendants,” entries 34–37, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, Hyde Park, New York.
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