In the Shadow of the Sword: The Birth of Islam and the Rise of the Global Arab Empire

by Tom Holland

  Sukhra The head of the Karin, a Parthian aristocratic family, and a classic over-mighty subject.

  Mazdak A mysterious Persian prophet who appears to have preached communism and to have been sponsored by Kavad.

  Zamasp (496–98) Kavad’s brother and briefly installed on the throne as his replacement.

  Aspebedes A Parthian general, and brother-in-law of Kavad.

  Kavus Kavad’s eldest son, and a committed Mazdakite.

  Khusrow I (531–79) The son of Kavad and Aspebedes’s sister. Known to posterity as Anushirvan—“Immortal Soul.”

  Hormizd IV (579–90) The son of Khusrow I.

  Bahram Chobin (590–1) A Mihranid general, and the first Parthian dynast to usurp the Sasanian throne.

  Khusrow II (590–628) The son of Hormizd IV. Restored to the throne with Roman help, his reign witnessed the near destruction of the Roman Empire.

  Shahrbaraz (630) Mihranid general who conquered Syria and Palestine for Khusrow II.

  Yazdegird III (633–51) The last Sasanian Shahanshah.

  Rome

  Posidonius Greek philosopher and enthusiast for globalisation.

  Augustus (27 BC–AD 14) First of the Roman emperors.

  Virgil Author of the Aeneid, the great epic of the Roman people.

  Nero (54–68) Psychotic Roman emperor whom rabbis claimed became a Jew.

  Philip (244–9) Nicknamed the “Arab.” Presided over Rome’s millennial celebrations.

  Decius (249–51) Killer of Philip, killed by Goths. A persecutor of Christians.

  Valerian (253–60) Captured by Shapur I.

  New Rome

  Constantine (306–37) The founder of Constantinople, and the first Christian Caesar.

  Helena Constantine’s mother, and the discoverer of the True Cross.

  Julian (361–3) The last pagan Caesar.

  Theodosius I (379–92) The last Caesar to rule both halves of the Roman Empire.

  Theodosius II (408–50) The grandson of Theodosius I. Renowned for his piety, and for the walls around Constantinople that were built during his reign.

  Anastasius (491–518) A bureaucrat turned bean-counting emperor.

  Justin (518–27) A Balkan peasant who rose through the ranks to the imperial throne.

  Justinian (527–65) Justin’s nephew. A worthy rival to Khusrow I.

  Theodora A one-time actress, whore and comedian who became Justinian’s wife.

  Belisarius Justinian’s best general.

  Maurice (582–602) Sponsor of Khusrow II. Deposed by Phocas.

  Phocas (602–10) Deposed and killed by Heraclius.

  Heraclius (610–41) A proto-crusader whose reign witnessed extraordinary highs and lows.

  Sergius Defeated and killed by the Arabs outside Gaza.

  The Christian Church

  Peter Chief of Christ’s disciples.

  Paul Early Christian apostle who argued that Gentiles, if they converted to Christ, were not obliged to follow the Jewish Law.

  Ignatius Supposedly appointed Bishop of Antioch by Peter himself, he was the first Christian to deploy the word Christianismos—“Christianity.”

  Basilides The second-century author of a heretical gospel that claimed Christ had not died on the cross.

  Marcion Another second-century heretic. He viewed the deity of the Old Testament as inferior to the True God, the Father of Christ, and dismissed the entire Old Testament itself as worthless.

  Tertullian Born in Carthage in the mid-second century, he was the first Christian to define the Trinity. He died around 220.

  Arius A priest from Alexandria who argued that God the Father had existed before God the Son. His teachings were condemned as heretical at the Council of Nicaea in 325.

  Athanasius Bishop of Alexandria who took a leading role against Arius at the Council of Nicaea, and was the first to prescribe the contents of what is still the Christian New Testament.

  Cyril Bishop of Jerusalem in the fourth century.

  Epiphanius A bishop from Cyprus who compiled an exhaustive encyclopedia of heresies in the fourth century.

  Jerome A translator of the Bible into Latin who settled permanently in Bethlehem in 388.

  Nestorius Bishop of Constantinople who was condemned as a heretic in 431 for arguing that the relationship between the human and the divine in Christ had been one of coexistence rather than union.

  Dioscorus Thuggish Bishop of Alexandria who helped to provoke the summoning of the Council of Chalcedon.

  Theodoret A Syrian bishop in the first half of the fifth century who took a keen interest in the Arabs.

  Sozomen A historian from Gaza who in around 440 published a history of the Church that repeatedly touched on Arab affairs.

  Simeon the Elder The first and most famous of the pillar-topping saints known as stylites.

  Simeon the Younger The most celebrated stylite of the sixth century.

  Paul An Egyptian monk appointed by Justinian to be Bishop of Alexandria.

  Zoilus A Syrian sent by Justinian to replace Paul as Bishop of Alexandria.

  Barbarians, Mercenaries and Rebels

  Zenobia Queen of Palmyra and—briefly, following Shapur I’s capture of Valerian—much of the Roman East.

  Mavia Fourth-century Arab queen who briefly emulated Zenobia’s conquests.

  Mundhir Persian attack-dog and King of the Lakhmids.

  Arethas Roman attack-dog and King of the Ghassanids.

  Julian Leader of the Samaritan revolt against Justinian.

  Yusuf As’ar Yath’ar Jewish king of Himyar.

  Theoderic Mustachioed Ostrogothic king of Italy.

  Nehemiah Jewish leader who attempted, after the capture of Jerusalem by the Persians, to rebuild the Temple.

  Arculf A Frankish pilgrim to Jerusalem in the reign of Mu’awiya.

  The Arab Empire

  Muhammad The Prophet of Islam.

  Abu Bakr (632–4) According to Muslim tradition, the first of the Rashidun—the “rightly guided” Caliphs.

  Umar I (634–44) Warrior leader and mighty ascetic.

  Uthman (644–56) Heir to Umar as leader of the Arab Empire, and the man responsible, according to Islamic tradition, for the compilation of Muhammad’s revelations into a single book. An Umayyad.

  Ali (656–61) Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law.

  Yazid Umayyad general who took a leading role in the conquest of Syria.

  Mu’awiya (661–80) Brother of Yazid, governor of Syria, and rival of Ali for control of the Arab Empire.

  Yazid I (680–3) The son and heir of Mu’awiya. Alternately idolised as a man of the people and loathed as a drunken playboy.

  Husayn Muhammad’s youngest and favourite grandson.

  Marwan I (684–5) Uthman’s half-brother: a smooth operator.

  Abd al-Malik (685–705) Marwan’s son: the Arab Empire’s equivalent of Constantine.

  Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr Venerable Companion of Muhammad, and Abd al-Malik’s principal rival in the second civil war for control of the Arab Empire.

  Mus’ab Brother of Ibn al-Zubayr, who entrusted him with the pacification of Iraq.

  Mukhtar Nicknamed the “Deceiver” by his enemies, he led a revolutionary movement in Iraq against the regime of Ibn al-Zubayr. He owned a holy chair.

  Al-Hajjaj Nicknamed “Little Dog.” Abd al-Malik’s principal and most brilliant lieutenant.

  Walid I (705–15) Son and heir of Abd al-Malik who built the great mosque of Damascus.

  Suleiman (715–17) Son of Abd al-Malik and heir of Walid who sponsored the second siege of Constantinople.

  Maslama Son of Abd al-Malik and commander in charge of the expedition against Constantinople.

  Ali ibn Bakkar Warrior-scholar.

  Abu Ishaq Warrior-scholar.

  Abdullah ibn al-Mubarak Warrior-scholar.

  Umar II (717–20) Nephew of Abd al-Malik and sufficiently pious to be recognised by subsequent Islamic tradition as an authentic Caliph—the only Umayyad to be granted that
honour.

  Hisham (724–43) Last of Abd al-Malik’s sons to become Caliph.

  Walid II (743–4) Abd al-Malik’s great-nephew, and a renowned playboy, whose murder precipitated a third bout of civil war.

  Marwan II (744–50) Last of the Umayyad Caliphs.

  Abu Muslim An enigmatic Abbasid-sponsored rebel who led a revolt in the far east of the Caliphate that culminated in the overthrow of the Umayyads.

  Glossary

  Abbasids The second dynasty to rule the Caliphate, after the toppling of the Umayyads in 750.

  Ahriman The evil spirit in Zoroastrianism, opposed to Ohrmazd.

  Al-’Uzza An Arab goddess who served as patron of the Lakhmids and is mentioned dismissively in the Qur’an.

  Amir Arabic for “Commander.”

  Anahita An Iranian warrior goddess with a major shrine at Istakhr in Persia. She was cast by Zoroastrians as a lieutenant of Ohrmazd, the supreme benevolent deity of Zoroastrianism.

  Arian A supporter of the Christian priest Arius, who argued in the early fourth century that God the Father had existed before God the Son. His teachings were condemned as heretical at the Council of Nicaea in 325.

  Ascetic A word that derived from the Greek for “training” and referred originally to Christian hermits who practised spectacular feats of self-mortification.

  Asha The Zoroastrian principle of Truth and Order.

  Byzantine A word used after the foundation of Constantinople to describe a citizen of the city. Many modern historians—although not me—refer to the late Roman Empire as “Byzantine.”

  Caliph Anglicisation of the Arabic khalifa—a word that appears twice in the Qur’an, where it seems to have meant “man.” Subsequently, it came to mean “deputy.” When Abd al-Malik laid claim to the title of Khalifat Allah, he was describing himself as the “Deputy of God.” Confusingly, the word can also mean “successor”: the title of Khalifat Rasul Allah—“Successor of the Prophet of God”—was retrospectively applied to all the early leaders of the Arab Empire.

  Caliphate The Arab—and then Muslim—Empire.

  Catholic From the Greek word for “universal.” It was used, like “Orthodox,” as a self-description by supporters of the Council of Chalcedon—which served, in turn, to cast those opposed to it as mere factionalists.

  Chalcedonian Someone who subscribes to the doctrinal formulations of the Council of Chalcedon, held in 451. It is a measure of the triumph of the Chalcedonians over their various rivals in the Christian Church that they succeeded in appropriating the adjectives “Catholic” and “Orthodox.” Today’s Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Protestant Churches are all Chalcedonian.

  Dar-al-Islam Literally, the “House of Islam”—the lands where Muslims are in authority.

  Drug “The Lie”—in Zoroastrianism, the principle opposed to Asha.

  Dushara A god widely worshipped by the pagan Arabs as their principal deity.

  Ebionites A sect of Christians who claimed descent from the original Jewish Church.

  Ecclesia Greek for “church.” Originally, it referred to an assembly of citizens.

  Farr The supernatural mark of a Persian king’s majesty.

  Fitna Arabic for “time of trial”—shorthand for civil war.

  Foederati A Latin word used to designate barbarian troops employed by the Romans as mercenaries, generally beyond the frontiers of the empire.

  Gentile A non-Jew.

  Ghassanids An Arab warrior dynasty employed by the Romans against the Shahanshah.

  Gnostics Intellectual mystics who believed that gnosis—the Greek word for “knowledge”—would provide them with salvation from the material world.

  Gog and Magog Kitten-eating savages imprisoned by Alexander the Great behind gates of brass, and destined to be set free at the end of time.

  Hadith The report of a saying or an action of Muhammad—or, in the early years of Islam, of a Companion of Muhammad. In Islam, hadiths are second in authority only to the Qur’an.

  Haram Arabic for “hallowed space.”

  Hijra The Arabic equivalent of “exodus”—a migration. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad’s hijra from Mecca to Medina in 622 is the event that brought the Islamic order of time into being.

  Imam In pre-Islamic Arabia, the “founding father” of a tribe or people; but under Islam, the word increasingly came to signify a religious leader.

  Iranshahr “The Dominion of the Aryans”: the name given by the Sasanian kings to their empire.

  Isnad The chain of informants stretching back to the time of Muhammad that serves to validate his sayings.

  Ius Latin for “law.”

  Jahiliyya A word that derives from the Arabic for ignorance—jahl—and refers, in Muslim tradition, to the “Age of Ignorance” that existed before Islam.

  Jinn Supernatural creatures bred of fire that haunt the mythology of both pre-Islamic and Islamic Arabia.

  Jizya The poll-tax imposed on Jews and Christians by order of the Qur’an.

  Ka’ba Arabic for “cube”—a shape that the pre-Islamic Arabs seem to have associated strongly with the sacred. Not to be confused with ka’iba, meaning “virgin,” and certainly not with ku’ba, meaning “breasts.” The most celebrated ka’ba stands to this day in the centre of the sanctuary of Mecca.

  Kai An ancient Persian title, meaning “king.”

  Karin A Parthian aristocratic dynasty.

  Kayanids A legendary dynasty from Persian mythology, celebrated for their wondrous exploits and heroic record as fighters of barbarians.

  Khalifat Allah See “Caliph.”

  Kharijites An early Muslim sect celebrated equally for their piety and ferocity.

  Lakhmids An Arab warrior dynasty employed by the Shahanshah against the Romans.

  Magaritai The Greek form of the Arab word muhajirun.

  Manichaeism A religion that fused Jewish, Christian, Zoroastrian and Buddhist teachings, first taught in the third century AD by a prophet from near Ctesiphon named Mani, and savagely persecuted almost everywhere.

  Maqom Hebrew for “place.” The Arabic equivalent is maqam.

  Mathran An ancient Persian word meaning “prophet.”

  Mazdakite A follower of Mazdak, a Persian prophet who preached a radical religious message of communism in the early sixth century AD.

  Mihr An ancient Iranian god with special responsibility for the punishment of oath-breakers. His home was the Alburz Mountains in northern Iran, and his sacred colour was green. Zoroastrians regarded him as being, like Anahita, a lieutenant of Ohrmazd; but there were many, in the remoter reaches of Iranshahr, who worshipped him as a great god in his own right.

  Mihran A Parthian aristocratic dynasty.

  Minim A Hebrew word that the rabbis applied to heretics; sometimes used as shorthand for “Christians.”

  Monophysite An insulting term that Chalcedonians applied to their opponents in the Christian Church who held that the divine and human natures of Christ had been so interfused as to constitute a mone physis—Greek for “single nature.”

  Mowbed A Zoroastrian priest.

  Muhajirun An Arab word meaning “those who go on a hijra”—therefore, “emigrants.” In the early years of the Arab Empire, religiously motivated conquerors seem to have used it in preference to “Muslims” as a self-designation.

  Mushrikun “Those who are guilty of shirk”: the opponents of the Prophet in the Qur’an.

  Nazoreans A sect of Christians, like the Ebionites, who claimed descent from the original Jewish Church.

  Nestorians A word applied by their opponents to those Christians who believed that the two natures of Christ, the divine and the human, had existed distinct within his earthly body. Nestorius, a Bishop of Constantinople, was condemned for heresy in the first half of the fifth century.

  Ohrmazd The supreme God of Truth and Light in Zoroastrianism.

  Orthodox From the Greek words for “correct belief.”

  Palladium The image of the goddess Pallas Athena sup
posedly taken from Troy to Rome, and from Rome to Constantinople.