God's War: A New History of the Crusades

by Christopher Tyerman

  28. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 46 and, for the author’s apparently eyewitness and certainly dramatic account of the episode, pp. 44–8.

  29. The butcher may have been a shepherd, according to the thirteenth-century Ibn al-Athir, Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli (London 1984), pp. 6–7; for other references, France, Victory, p. 267.

  30. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 150.

  31. Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, v, 98; vi, 18.

  32. A leading figure in these events left the most detailed record: Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 51–61, but cf. Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 57–60, 65–6 and the letters accepting the Lance’s authenticity, of Anselm of Ribemont, July 1098, and the crusade leaders, Sept. 1098, Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 159–60, 163; C. Morris, ‘Policy and Visions: the Case of the Holy Lance at Antioch’, War and Government in the Middle Ages, ed. J. Gillingham and J. C. Holt (Woodbridge 1984), pp. 33–45.

  33. Dedeyan, ‘Les Colophons’, pp. 94–5.

  34. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 52.

  35. For Peter’s later visions, Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 66–72, 76–8, 93–103; cf. France, Victory, p. 322; Morris, ‘Policy and Visions’, pp. 42–3; Runciman, History of the Crusades, i, 273–4.

  36. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L., Hill, pp. 108, 110, 122–3, 128; on relics in general, cf. pp. 111–13.

  37. Fulcher of Chartres, History, p. 106; Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 67 and Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, v, 108 for Herluin the interpreter; France, Victory, pp. 270–96.

  38. Cf. Anna Comnena, Alexiad, pp. 348–50 with Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 63–5, Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States, esp. pp. 32–60.

  39. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 161–5; cf. the earlier letter from the princes April/July 1098, which lacks anti-Greek vitriol, pp. 153–5.

  40. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 155–6.

  41. See note 1 above and refs. for Egyptian negotiations.

  42. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 74–5 (‘peace of discord’).

  43. For cannibalism at Ma ‘arrat Gesta Francorum, p. 80; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 81; in general, Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, pp. 241–2; the main ‘source’ is the later Chanson d’Antioche which places the first outbreak at Antioch: L. A. M. Sumberg, ‘The “Tafurs” and the First Crusade’, Medieval Studies, 21 (1959), 224–46, esp. 235–46. Sumberg argues for a Flemish origin of the Tafurs and their ‘king’. Albert of Aachen, usually a rich source for north-eastern Frenchmen, does not mention them.

  44. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 81–3; Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 81.

  45. For the events at Arqah, Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, pp. 87–113; Hill, Gesta Francorum, pp. 83–5; France, Victory, pp. 316–26 and pp. 326–31 for march to Jerusalem. For Urban II’s alleged decree on the right of conquest, R. Somerville, ‘The Council of Clermont and the First Crusade’, Studia Gratiana, 20 (1976), 335–7, but cf. J. Richard, The Crusades (Cambridge 1999), p. 112.

  46. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 113 comments on their rotting timbers.

  47. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 116; Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 87.

  48. The best modern accounts are J. Prawer, ‘The Jerusalem the Crusaders Captured’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. Edbury, pp. 1–16; France, Victory, pp. 330–57.

  49. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 470; Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 90; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 121–3.

  50. Albert of Aachen, Historia, pp. 476–7.

  51. Gesta Francorum, p. 91; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, pp. 127–8.

  52. S. Goitein, ‘Contemporary Letters on the Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders’, Journal of Jewish Studies, 3 (1952), pp. 165, 173 and, in general, pp. 162–77.

  53. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 127; Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 92; Goitein, ‘Contemporary Letters’, p. 172; idem, ‘Geniza Sources for the Crusader Period’, Outremer, ed. B. Kedar, H. Mayer, R. Smail (Jerusalem 1982), p. 312 and, generally, pp. 306–14.

  54. See notes 52 and 53 above.

  55. Hill, Gesta Francorum, p. 92; Raymond of Aguilers, Historia, trans. J. H. and L. L. Hill, p. 128.

  56. The aftermath of the capture and the battle of Ascalon are dealt with contrastingly by Runciman, History of the Crusades, i, 289–302; France, Victory, pp. 356–66.

  57. Fulcher of Chartres, History, p. 89; Murray, ‘The Army of Godfrey de Bouillon’, pp. 301–29.

  58. A. E. Laiou, Constantinople and the Latins: The Foreign Policy of Andronicus II 1282–1328 (Cambridge, Mass. 1972), pp. 130–99; K. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant 1204–1571 (Philadelphia 1976–84), i, 163–4, 168–9, 441–56.

  59. J. France, ‘Crusading Warfare and Its Adaptation to Eastern Conditions in the Twelfth Century’, Mediterranean Historical Review, 15 (2000), 49–66.

  60. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 138–40, 144–6, 149–52, 156–60.

  5: The Foundation of Christian Outremer

  1. Translation in M. Biddle, The Tomb of Christ (Stroud 1999), pp. 92–4, generally pp. 91–5; for building dates, M. de Vogue, Les Eglises de la Terre Sainte (Paris 1860), esp. p. 218; for Fulk, William of Tyre, Historia, trans. E. A. Babcock and A. C. Krey, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea (New York 1976, reprint of 1941 edn), ii, 62 (hereafter William of Tyre, History).

  2. See the examples discussed by C. Morris, ‘Picturing the Crusades’, The Crusades and their Sources, ed. J. France and W. G. Zajac (Aldershot 1998), pp. 195–216; cf. Biddle, The Tomb of Christ.

  3. H. W. C. Davis, ‘Henry of Blois and Brian FitzCount’, English Historical Review, 25 (1910), 301–3.

  4. J. Delaville le Roulx (ed.), Cartulaire général de l’ordre des Hospitaliers de S. Jean de Jerusalem 1100–1310 (Paris 1894–1906), no. 309, i, 222–3, no. 309; Robert of Rheims, Historia Iherosolimitana, RHC Occ., iii, 723.

  5. B. Hamilton, The Latin Church in the Crusader States (London 1980), pp. 61–2; J. Richard, The Crusades c. 1071–c.1291 (Cambridge 1999), pp. 100, 119; for the refashioning of the Holy Land in the twentieth century, see M. Benvenisti, Sacred Landscape: The Buried History of the Holy Land since 1948 (London 2000).

  6. In general for the 1100–1101 expeditions, Riley-Smith, First Crusade, pp. 120–34; Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, pp. 75–7 and passim; Runciman, History of the Crusades, ii, 18–31; J. L. Cate, ‘The Crusade of 1101’, History of the Crusades, ed. K. Setton (2nd edn Madison 1969–89), i, 343–67; cf. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 141–2, 144–55, 156–65, 174–9. For numbers, France, Victory, pp. 122–42; J. Riley-Smith, ‘Casualties on the First Crusade’, Crusades, 1 (2002), 13–28; Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, iii, 182–3 (written before 1130) for his reference to the 1107–8 crusade as the third journey (tercia profectio) to Jerusalem, implying that the 1101–2 was regarded as the second.

  7. Cartulaire de St Cyr de Nevers, ed. R. de Lespinasse (Nevers/Paris 1916), no. 96.

  8. Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, v, 324.

  9. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 175–6, no. XX and pp. 144–6, 155–6 for the letters; Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, p. 219 for their circulation.

  10. Quoted by M. Angold, The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204 (London 1984), p. 150; for Anna Comnena’s gloss, Alexiad, pp. 355–7.

  11. Albert of Aachen, Historia, p. 563.

  12. Ekkehard of Aura, Hierosolymita, v, 30.

  13. Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 150.

  14. Fulcher of Chartres, History, pp. 284–8, 300–302; for general accounts of twelfth-century Outremer, J. Prawer, The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (London 1972); Richard, The Crusades, pp. 77–215; J. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A Short History (Londo
n 1990), pp. 40–87; H. E. Mayer, The Crusades (2nd edn Oxford 1988), pp. 58–136, 152–95. The main western chronicle accounts are, up to the late 1120s, Fulcher of Chartres, Albert of Aachen and, thereafter, William of Tyre.

  15. M. Benvenisti, The Crusaders in the Holy Land (Jerusalem 1970), pp. 14, 132; J. Riley-Smith, ‘The Survival in Latin Palestine of Muslim Administration’, The Eastern Mediterranean Lands in the Period of the Crusades, ed. P. M. Holt (Warminster 1977), pp. 9–22 and esp. p. 16.

  16. Fulcher of Chartres, History pp. 132, 150; William of Tyre, History, i, 408; for the accounts of the Englishman Saewulf (1101×3) and the Russian abbot Daniel (1106×8), J. Wilkinson, The Jerusalem Pilgrimage 1099–1185, Hackluyt Society, NS, 167 (1988), 100, 108, 145, 148–50, 154, 162.

  17. H. E. Mayer and M. L. Favreau, ‘Das Diplom Balduins I für Genua und Genuas Goldene Inschrift in der Grabeskirche’, Quellen und Forschungen aus italianischen Archiven und Bibliotheken, 55–6 (1976), 22 et seq.; other scholars still maintain the authenticity of both 1104 privilege and the inscription.

  18. Caffaro of Genoa, De Liberatione Civitatum Orientis Liber, RHC Occ., v.

  19. Richard, The Crusades, pp. 98–9.

  20. Fulcher of Chartres, History, pp. 149–50.

  21. Hillenbrand, Crusades, pp. 73–4 and, generally, pp. 69–76.

  6: The Latin States

  1. Fulcher of Chartres, History, pp. 271–2.

  2. Apart from the general accounts by Riley-Smith, Mayer, Richard and Prawer (above chap. 5 note 14), see for the Muslim perspective Holt, Age of Crusades, pp. 23–59; C. Cahen, La Syrie du Nord (Paris 1940); and the chapters by H. S. Fink, R. L. Nicholson and H. A. R. Gibb in History of the Crusades, ed. Setton, vol. i. There is no surviving Edessan Latin chronicle, but cf. that of the Armenian Matthew of Edessa, trans. A. E. Dostourian, Armenia and the Crusades (New York and London 1993); William of Tyre et al. have much to say as well. On Edessa generally, J. B. Segal, Edessa, ‘The Blessed City’ (Oxford 1970).

  3. On Antioch/Edessa relations, T. S. Asbridge, Creation of the Principality of Antioch, esp. pp. 50–91, 104–28.

  4. William of Tyre, History, ii, 52.

  5. H. Kennedy, Crusader Castles (Cambridge 1994), p. 18.

  6. William of Tyre, History, ii, 201, cf. pp. 140–41.

  7. In general and specifically, Asbridge, Creation of the Principality; Cahen, Syrie du Nord; Lilie, Byzantium and Crusader States; there survives an Antiochene chronicle by Walter the Chancellor, The Antiochene Wars, trans. T. S. Asbridge and S. B. Edgington (Aldershot 1999).

  8. Although he was: Walter the Chancellor, Antiochene Wars, p. 163; Usamah, An Arab-Syrian Gentleman, p. 149; Ibn al-Qalanisi, Damascus Chronicle, p. 149.

  9. Lilie, Byzantium and Crusader States, pp. 103–4; Mayer, Crusades, p. 115; Runciman, History of the Crusades, ii, 364–5 and note 1.

  10. P. Deschamps, Les Châteaux des Croisés en Terre Sainte (Paris 1934–73), iii, 191–9; Asbridge, Creation of Principality, pp. 73, 175; Mayer, Crusades, p. 163.

  11. Asbridge, Creation of Principality, pp. 176–7 and refs.

  12. Cahen, Syrie de Nord, pp. 41–2, 343–4, 405, 540; B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant’, Muslims under Latin Rule, ed. J. M. Powell (Princeton 1990), pp. 137, 156–7; for Alan of al-Atharib, Asbridge, Creation of Principality, p. 169.

  13. Cahen, Syrie du Nord, p. 278.

  14. Walter the Chancellor, Antiochene Wars, pp. 87–9.

  15. Mayer, Crusades, p. 192; Runciman, History of the Crusades, ii, 346–7; William of Tyre, History, ii, 235–6.

  16. Richard, The Crusades, pp. 113–14.

  17. Anna Comnena, Alexiad, p. 434 and 424–34 for text of treaty; Lilie, Byzantium and Crusader States, pp. 72–82; Asbridge, Creation of the Principality, pp. 94–103.

  18. Lilie, Byzantium and Crusader States, passim.

  19. William of Tyre, History, ii, 77–8.

  20. Runciman, History of the Crusades, ii, 182–3 and refs.; William of Tyre, History, ii, 199.

  21. J. H. and L. L. Hill, Raymond IV Count of Toulouse (New York 1962); Kennedy, Crusader Castles, p. 63.

  22. Ibn al-Qalanisi, Damascus Chronicle, p.89.

  23. For their fortifications, Kennedy, Crusader Castles, pp. 64–7; For the end of the Embriacos, below p. 732.

  24. Damascus Chronicle, pp. 287–8; Runciman, History of the Crusades, ii, 287–8 for further refs.

  25. William of Tyre, History, ii, 214; Holt, Age of Crusades, pp. 28, 39–40; B. Lewis, ‘The Isma’ilites and the Assassins’, History of the Crusades, ed. Setton, i, 99–132.

  26. E.g. William of Tyre, History, ii, 192–3 (reactions after the debacle of the siege of Damascus 1148); ii, 418–20, 434–5 (for the tensions surrounding the visit of Count Philip of Flanders 1177, on which see B. Hamilton, The Leper King and his Heirs (Cambridge 2000), pp. 119–33).

  27. Only one twelfth-century verse epic, the Chanson des Chétifs, originated in Outremer, at Antioch, probably at the court of Raymond of Poitiers (d. 1149), but other chanson cycles were known there as in the west; for a summary, Mayer, Crusades, pp. 192–3.

  28. A. V. Murray, ‘The Accession of Baldwin I of Jerusalem’, From Clermont to Jerusalem: The Crusade and Crusade Societies 1095–1500 (Turnhout 1998), pp. 81–102.

  29. On titles, J. France, ‘The Election and Title of Godfrey de Bouillon’, Canadian Journal of History, 18 (1983), 321–30; cf. J. Riley-Smith, ‘The Title of Godfrey de Bouillon’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 52 (1979), 83–6; A. V. Murray, ‘The Title of Godfrey de Bouillon as Ruler of Jerusalem’, Collegium Medievale, 3 (1990), 163–78; Richard, The Crusades, p. 78; H. E. Mayer, ‘Latins, Muslims and Greeks in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem’, History, 63 (1978), 175.

  30. William of Tyre, History, i, 416; Mayer, Mélanges, esp. pp. 11, 17, 30–72.

  31. William of Tyre, History, i, 487–8; for the Latin text, William of Tyre, Chronicon, bk 11, c. 14, p. 518.

  32. Fulcher of Chartres, History, p. 222.

  33. Fulcher of Chartres, History, p. 222; William of Tyre, who used Fulcher, removes all mention of non-Latins in his account.

  34. S. Tibble, Monarchy and Lordship in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 1099–1291 (Oxford 1989); cf. the review by H. E. Mayer in Göttingischen Gelehrten Anzeigen, 245 (1993), 59–70.

  35. H. E. Mayer, ‘Angevin versus Normans: The New Men of King Fulk of Jerusalem’, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 133 (1989), 1–25.

  36. E. de Rozière (ed.), Cartulaire de l’église du Saint Sépulchre de Jérusalem, v (Paris 1849), 17, no. 15; in general, H. E. Mayer, ‘The Succession to Baldwin II of Jerusalem’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 39 (1985), 139–47.

  37. William of Tyre, History, ii, 47; as a boy in Jerusalem, William may have seen King Fulk in person.

  38. William of Tyre, History, ii, 51.

  39. Riley-Smith, First Crusaders, pp. 169–88.

  40. C. J. Tyerman, England and the Crusades 1095–1588 (Chicago 1988), pp. 50–51; cf. Hamilton, The Leper King, pp. 212–14.

  41. P. Edbury and J. G. Rowe, William of Tyre (Cambridge 1988), pp. 61–84.

  42. For a summary, J. Folda, ‘Art in the Latin East’, The Oxford History of the Crusades, ed. J. Riley-Smith (Oxford 1999), p. 141.

  43. Alexander III, Opera Omnia, PL, 200, col. 1294; Hamilton, The Leper King, passim for a modern positive gloss on Baldwin.

  44. William of Tyre, History, ii, 446, 460.

  45. R. C. Smail, ‘The Predicaments of Guy of Lusignan 1183–87’, Outremer, ed. Kedar et al., pp. 159–76.

  46. B. Z. Kedar, ‘The General Tax of 1183 in the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem’, English Historical Review, 89 (1974), 339–45; William of Tyre, History, ii, 486–7.

  7: East is East and East is West: Outremer in the Twelfth Century

  1. William of Tyre, History, ii, 397–8; E. Kohlberg and B. Z. Kedar, ‘A Melkite Physician in Frankish Jerusalem and Ayyubid Damascus’, in B. Z. Kedar, The Franks in
the Levant (Aldershot 1993), chap. XII, pp. 113–15; C. Cahen, ‘Indigènes et croisés’, Syria, 15 (1934), 351–60; on William of Tyre, Edbury and Rowe, William of Tyre, esp. pp. 1–22 and passim for his historical interpretation.

  2. Livres des Assises de la Cour des Bourgeois, c. 241, RHC Lois (Paris 1843), ii, 172.

  3. Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei, p. 245; Orderic Vitalis, Ecclesiastical History, v, 136–7; Richard, The Crusades, pp. 144–5.

  4. Ellenblum, Settlement, pp. 9, 14–19.

  5. Fulcher of Chartres, History, pp. 149–50, 271–2; The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, trans. R. J. C. Broadhurst (London 1952), p. 325; Usamah, An Arab-Syrian Gentleman, p. 170.

  6. A. de Barthélemy, ‘Libre Exercise de commerce octroyé à un pèlerin champanois’, Archives de l’Orient Latin, i (1881), 535–6; in general, Ellenblum, Settlement, passim; cf. Prawer, The Latin Kingdom; idem, ‘Colonization Activities in the Latin Kingdom’, Crusader Institutions (Oxford 1980), pp. 102–42.

  7. Le Cartulaire du chapitre du Saint-Sépulchre de Jérusalem, ed. G. Bresc-Bautier (Paris 1984), no. 121, pp. 246–7; Hugh le Poitevin, Chronique de l’abbaye de Vézelay, Monumenta Vizeliacensis, ed. R. B. C. Huygens (Turnhout 1976), pp. 400, 402.

  8. H. E. Mayer, ‘Abu’ alis Spuren am Berliner Tiergarten’, Archiv für Diplomatik, 38 (1992), 132–3; William of Tyre, History, ii, 292–4; note 1 above.

  9. Ralph Niger, De Re Militari et Triplici Via Peregrinationis Ierosolimitanae, ed. L. Schmugge (Berlin 1977), pp. 186–7, 193–9; William of Tyre, History, ii, 192–3; for a rehabilitation of Heraclius, B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Patriarch Eraclius’, Outremer, ed. Kedar et al., pp. 177–204.

  10. John of Würzburg, in Jerusalem Pilgrimage, ed. Wilkinson, Hakluyt Society NS 167 (1988), pp. 259, 266; John Phocas, ibid., p. 324.

  11. Theoderic, Jerusalem Pilgrimage, ed. Wilkinson, p. 310.

  12. C. Kohler, ‘Documents inédits concernant l’Orient Latin et les croisades’, Revue de l’Orient Latin (Paris 1893–1911), vii, 1–9.

  13. B. Z. Kedar’s phrase, ‘The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant’, Muslims under Latin Rule, ed. Powell, p. 174; idem, ‘A Second Incarnation in Frankish Jerusalem’, The Experience of Crusading, ii, ed. P. Edbury and J. Phillips (Cambridge 2003), p. 89.