Everyone Is African

by Daniel J. Fairbanks

  8. I. Chambers et al., “Functional Expression Cloning of Nanog, a Pluripotency Sustaining Factor in Embryonic Stem Cells,” Cell 113, no. 5 (2003): 643–55.

  9. L. Ségurel et al., “The ABO Blood Group Is a Trans-Species Polymorphism in Primates,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 109, no. 45 (2012): 18493–98.

  10. J. A. Rowe et al., “Blood Group O Protects against Severe Plasmodium falciparum Malaria through the Mechanism of Reduced Rosetting,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 104, no. 44 (2007): 17471–76; A. E. Fry et al., “Common Variation in the ABO Glycosyltransferase Is Associated with Susceptibility to Severe Plasmodium falciparum Malaria,” Human Molecular Genetics 17, no. 4 (2008): 567–76.

  11. R. I. Glass et al., “Predisposition for Cholera of Individuals with O Blood Group: Possible Evolutionary Significance,” American Journal of Epidemiology 121, no. 6 (1985): 791–96; J. D. Clemens et al., “ABO Blood Groups and Cholera: New Observations on Specificity of Risk and Modification of Vaccine Efficacy,” Journal of Infectious Disease 159, no. 4 (1989): 770–73; A. S. G. Faruque et al., “The Relationship between ABO Blood Groups and Susceptibility to Diarrhea due to Vibrio cholerae 0139,” Clinical Infectious Disease 18, no. 5 (1994): 827–28.

  12. A. Keinan and A. G. Clark, “Recent Explosive Human Population Growth Has Resulted in an Excess of Rare Genetic Variants,” Science 336, no. 6082 (2012): 740–43.

  13. Fairbanks et al., “NANOGP8,” pp. 1447–57.

  14. J. Xing et al., “Fine-Scaled Human Genetic Structure Revealed by SNP Microarrays,” Genome Research 19 (2009): 819.

  15. E. Giardina et al., “Haplotypes in SLC24A5 Gene as Ancestry Informative Markers in Different Populations,” Current Genomics 9, no. 2 (2008): 110–14.

  16. Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group, “The Use of Racial, Ethnic, and Ancestral Categories in Human Genetics Research,” American Journal of Human Genetics 77, no. 4 (2005): 524.

  CHAPTER 4: “THE COLOR OF THEIR SKIN”

  1. M. L. King Jr., “I Have a Dream,” Historic Documents, http://www.ushistory.org/documents/i-have-a-dream.htm (accessed June 29, 2014).

  2. C. R. Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, 1st ed. (London: John Murray, 1859), p. 406.

  3. N. G. Jablonski and G. Chaplin, “Human Skin Pigmentation as an Adaptation to UV Radiation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 107, suppl. 2 (2010): 8962–68.

  4. G. S. Omenn, “Evolution and Public Health,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 107, suppl. 1 (2012): 1702–709; S. Sharma et al., “Vitamin D Deficiency and Disease Risk among Aboriginal Arctic Populations,” Nutritional Review 69, no. 8 (2011): 468–78.

  5. C. R. Wagner, F. R. Greer, and the Section on Breastfeeding and Committee on Nutrition, “Prevention of Rickets and Vitamin D Deficiency in Infants, Children, and Adolescents,” Pediatrics 122, no. 5 (2008): 1142–52.

  6. T. Haitina et al., “High Diversity in Functional Properties of Melanocortin 1 Receptor (MC1R) in Divergent Primate Species Is More Strongly Associated with Phylogeny than Coat Color,” Molecular Biology and Evolution 24, no. 9 (2007): 2001–8.

  7. P. Sulem et al., “Genetic Determinants of Hair, Eye and Skin Pigmentation in Europeans,” Nature Genetics 39 (2007): 1443–52; E. Pośpiech et al., “The Common Occurrence of Epistasis in the Determination of Human Pigmentation and Its Impact on DNA-Based Pigmentation Phenotype Prediction,” Forensic Science International: Genetics 11 (2014): 64–72.

  8. S. Beleza et al., “The Timing of Pigmentation Lightening in Europeans,” Molecular Biology and Evolution 30, no. 1 (2013): 24–35.

  9. E. Healy et al., “Functional Variation of MC1R Alleles from Red-Haired Individuals,” Human Molecular Genetics 10, no. 21 (2001): 2397–402.

  10. Jablonski and Chaplin, “Human Skin Pigmentation”; K. Makova and H. L. Norton, “Worldwide Polymorphism at the MC1R Locus and Normal Pigmentation Variation in Humans,” Peptides 26, no. 10 (2005): 1901–908.

  11. Jablonski and Chaplin, “Human Skin Pigmentation.”

  12. S. J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, rev. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), p. 401.

  13. E. Giardina et al., “Haplotypes in SLC24A5 Gene as Ancestry Informative Markers in Different Populations,” Current Genomics 9, no. 2 (2008): 110–14.

  14. R. Smith et al., “Melanocortin 1 Receptor Variants in an Irish Population,” Journal of Investigative Dermatology 111, no. 1 (1998): 119–22.

  15. C. Lalueza-Fox et al., “A Melanocortin 1 Receptor Allele Suggests Varying Pigmentation among Neanderthals,” Science 318, no. 5855 (2007): 1453–55.

  16. C. C. Cequeira et al., “Predicting Homo Pigmentation Phenotype through Genomic Data: From Neanderthal to James Watson,” American Journal of Human Biology 24, no. 5 (2012): 705–709.

  17. Jablonsky and Chaplin, “Human Skin Pigmentation,” p. 8966.

  18. H. L. Norton et al., “Genetic Evidence for the Convergent Evolution of Light Skin in Europeans and East Asians,” Molecular Biology and Evolution 24, no. 3 (2007): 710–22.

  CHAPTER 5: HUMAN DIVERSITY AND HEALTH

  1. A. C. Allison, “Protection Afforded by Sickle-Cell Trait against Subtertian Malarial Infection,” British Medical Journal 1, no. 4857 (1954): 290–94.

  2. S. M. Rich et al., “The Origin of Malignant Malaria,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 106, no. 35 (2009): 14902–907.

  3. M. Currat et al., “Molecular Analysis of the Beta-Globin Gene Cluster in the Niokholo Mandenka Population Reveals a Recent Origin of the Beta-S Senegal Mutation,” American Journal of Human Genetics 70, no. 1 (2002): 207–23.

  4. A. E. Kulozik et al., “Geographical Survey of Beta-S-Globin Gene Haplotypes: Evidence for an Independent Asian Origin of the Sickle-Cell Mutation,” American Journal of Human Genetics 39, no. 2 (1986): 239–44; F. Y. Zeng et al., “Sequence of the –530 Region of the Beta-Globin Gene of Sickle Cell Anemia Patients with the Arabian Haplotype,” Human Mutation 3, no. 2 (1994): 163–65.

  5. American Society of Hematology, “Statement on Screening for Sickle Cell Trait and Athletic Participation,” http://www.hematology.org/Advocacy/Statements/2650.aspx (accessed June 25, 2014).

  6. Ibid.

  7. Sickle Cell Disease Association of America, “Sickle Cell Trait and Athletics,” http://www.sicklecelldisease.org/index.cfm?page=sickle-cell-trait-athletics (accessed December 30, 2012).

  8. J. C. Goldsmith et al., “Framing the Research Agenda for Sickle Cell Trait: Building on the Current Understanding of Clinical Events and their Potential Implications,” American Journal of Hematology 87, no. 3 (2012): 340–46.

  9. N. L. Kaplan et al., “Age of the ∆F508 Cystic Fibrosis Mutation,” Nature Genetics 8 (1994): 216–18; N. Morral et al., “The Origin of the Major Cystic Fibrosis Mutation (∆F508) in European Populations,” Nature Genetics 7, no. 2 (1994): 169–75; E. Mateu et al., “Can a Place of Origin of the Main Cystic Fibrosis Mutations Be Identified?” American Journal of Human Genetics 70, no. 1 (2002): 257–64.

  10. The data cited here are from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), “U. S. Cancer Statistics: An Interactive Atlas,” http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DCPC_INCA/DCPC_INCA.aspx (accessed January 12, 2013).

  11. CDC, “Adult Cigarette Smoking in the United States: Current Estimates,” http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/adult_data/cig_smoking/#state (accessed January 12, 2013).

  12. C. Lu, “What Causes “Asian Glow?” Yale Scientific, April 3, 2011, http://www.yalescientific.org/2011/04/what-causes-”asian-glow” (accessed January 5, 2013).

  13. Y. Matsuo, R. Yokoyama, and S. Yokoyama, “The Genes for Human Alcohol Dehydrogenases Beta-1 and Beta-2 Differ by Only One Nucleotide,” European Journal of Biochemistry 183, no. 2 (1989): 317–20.

  14. H. Li et al., “Ethnic Related Selection for an ADH Class I Variant within East Asia,” PLoS
One 3, no. 4 (2008): 2.

  15. Ibid.

  16. J. Liu et al., “Haplotype-Based Study of the Association of Alcohol Metabolizing Genes with Alcohol Dependence in Four Independent Populations,” Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 35, no. 2 (2011): 304–16.

  17. C. Hedges and J. Sacco, Days of Destruction, Days of Revolt (New York: Nation Books, 2012), pp. 2–3.

  18. C. L. Ehlers, “Variations in ADH and ALDH in Southwest California Indians,” Alcohol Research & Health 30, no. 1 (2007): 14–17.

  19. C. L. Ehlers et al., “Linkage Analyses of Stimulant Dependence, Craving and Heavy Use in American Indians,” American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics 156B, no. 7 (2011): 772–80.

  20. T. Nakajima et al., “Natural Selection and Population History in the Human Angiotensinogen Gene (AGT): 736 Complete AGT Sequences in Chromosomes from around the World,” American Journal of Human Genetics 74, no. 5 (2004): 898–916.

  21. T. L. Savittand and M. F. Goldberg, “Herrick's 1910 Case Report of Sickle Cell Anemia. The Rest of the Story,” Journal of the American Medical Association 261, no. 2 (1989): 266–71.

  22. L. Pauling et al., “Sickle Cell Anemia: A Molecular Disease,” Science 110 (1949): 543–48.

  23. G. S. Graham and S. H. McCarty, “Sickle Cell (Meniscocytic) Anemia,” Southern Medical Journal 23 (1930): 600, quoted in M. Tapper, In the Blood: Sickle Cell Anemia and the Politics of Race (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), p. 38.

  24. M. F. Hammer et al., “Population Structure of Y Chromosome SNP Haplogroups in the United States and Forensic Implications for Constructing Y Chromosome STR Databases,” Forensic Science International 164, no. 1 (2006): 45–55.

  25. National Humanities Center Resource Toolbox, “On Slaveholders’ Sexual Abuse of Slaves: Selections from 19th & 20th Century Slave Narratives,” The Making of African American Identity, Vol. I, 1500–1865, http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/maai/enslavement/text6/masterslavesexualabuse.pdf (accessed January 15, 2013).

  26. A. B. Raper, “Sickle Cell Disease in Africa and America: A Comparison,” Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 53 (1950): 53, quoted in Tapper, In the Blood, p. 41.

  27. R. B. Scott, “Health Care Priorities and Sickle Cell Anemia,” Journal of the American Medical Association 214, no. 4 (1970): 731, quoted in Tapper, In the Blood, p. 102.

  28. Tapper, In the Blood, p. 104.

  29. Pauling et al., “Sickle Cell Anemia.”

  30. R. B. Scott, “Health Care Priorities and Sickle Cell Anemia,” p. 734, quoted in Tapper, In the Blood, pp. 105–106.

  31. R. B. Scott, “Reflections on the Current Status of the National Sickle Cell Disease Program in the United States,” Journal of the National Medical Association 71, no. 7 (1979): 679–81.

  32. S. A. Tishkoff et al., “Convergent Adaptation of Human Lactase Persistence in Africa and Europe,” Nature Genetics 39 (2007): 31–40.

  33. S. H. Witt, “Pressure Points in Growing up Indian,” Perspectives 12, no. 1 (1980): 24–31.

  34. Ibid.

  35. M. S. Watson et al., eds., “Newborn Screening: Toward a Uniform Screening Panel and System,” Genetics in Medicine 8, suppl. 1 (2006): 1s–252s.

  36. B. M. Rusert and C. D. M. Royal, “Grassroots Marketing in a Global Era: More Lessons from BiDil,” Journal of Law and Medical Ethics 39, no. 1 (2011): 79–90.

  37. Ibid.

  38. P. C. Ng et al., “Individual Genomes Instead of Race for Personalized Medicine,” Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 84 (2008): 306.

  39. H. Brody and L. M. Hunt, “BiDil: Assessing a Race-Based Pharmaceutical,” Annals of Family Medicine 4, no. 6 (2006): 558.

  40. Ibid., p. 559.

  41. L. K. Williams et al., “Differing Effects of Metformin on Glycemic Control by Race-Ethnicity,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism (early release, in press, 2014), http://press.endocrine.org/doi/abs/10.1210/jc.2014-1539 (accessed June 25, 2014).

  42. A. Wojcicki, “23andMe Provides an Update Regarding FDA's Review,” 23andMe Blog, December 5, 2013, http://blog.23andme.com/news/23andme-provides-an-update-regarding-fdas-review (accessed January 5, 2013).

  43. A. Jolie, “My Medical Choice,” New York Times, May 14, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/14/opinion/my-medical-choice.html?_r=0 (accessed January 5, 2014).

  44. P. R. Billings et al., “Discrimination as a Consequence of Genetic Testing,” American Journal of Human Genetics 50, no. 3 (1992): 476–82.

  45. Coalition for Genetic Fairness, “The History of GINA,” http://www.geneticalliance.org/ginaresource.history (accessed January 27, 2013).

  CHAPTER 6: HUMAN DIVERSITY AND INTELLIGENCE

  1. S. J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981).

  2. S. J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, rev. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996).

  3. R. J. Herrnstein and C. Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1996).

  4. Gould, Mismeasure of Man, rev. ed., p. 368.

  5. C. F. Chabris, “IQ Since ‘The Bell Curve,’” Commentary 106 (1998): 33–40, http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~cfc/Chabris1998a.html (accessed February 5, 2013).

  6. A. R. Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?” Harvard Educational Review 39, no. 2 (1969): 1–123.

  7. J. P. Rushton and A. R. Jensen, “Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability,” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 11, no. 2 (2005): 235.

  8. Gould, Mismeasure of Man, rev. ed., p. 369.

  9. Ibid.

  10. As quoted in a promotional statement on the first page of Herrnstein and Murray, Bell Curve.

  11. L. Hodges, “The Bell Curve Is Sending Shock Waves through America,” http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=154396§ioncode=26 (accessed February 1, 2013).

  12. Gould, Mismeasure of Man, rev. ed., pp. 376–77.

  13. L. S. Gottfredson, “Mainstream Science on Intelligence: An Editorial with 52 Signatories, History, and Bibliography,” Intelligence 24, no. 1 (1997): 13–23.

  14. U. Neisser et al., “Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns,” American Psychologist 51 (1996): p. 77.

  15. Ibid.

  16. R. E. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings and Theoretical Developments,” American Psychologist 67, no. 2 (2012): 130–59.

  17. Herrnstein and Murray, Bell Curve, p. 318.

  18. Ibid., p. 276.

  19. Neisser et al., “Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns”; Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings.”

  20. Herrnstein and Murray, Bell Curve, p. 276.

  21. Ibid., pp. 298–99.

  22. Ibid., p. 311.

  23. Rushton and Jensen, “Race Differences in Cognitive Ability.”

  24. Ibid., pp. 265–66.

  25. L. S. Gottfredson, “What If the Hereditarian Hypothesis Is True?” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 11, no. 2 (2005): 316.

  26. R. E. Nisbett, “Heredity, Environment, and Race Differences in IQ: A Commentary on Rushton and Jensen,” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 11, no. 2 (2005): 302.

  27. R. J. Sternberg, “There Are No Public-Policy Implications: A Reply to Rushton and Jensen,” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 11, no. 2 (2005): 295.

  28. R. J. Sternberg, “Intelligence,” Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 14, no. 1 (2012): 24.

  29. C. S. Spearman, “‘General Intelligence,’ Objectively Determined and Measured,” American Journal of Psychology 15, no. 2 (1904): 201–92.

  30. Sternberg, “Intelligence,” p. 21.

  31. R. J. Sternberg, E. L. Grigorenko, and K. K. Kidd, “Intelligence, Race, and Genetics,” American Psychologist 60, no. 2 (2005): 47.

  32. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings,” p. 131.

  33. Ibid.

  34. Sternberg, “Intelligence.”

  35. R. C. Lewontin, “Race and Intelligence,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scien
tists 26 (1970): 2–8.

  36. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings,” p. 132.

  37. Herrnstein and Murray, Bell Curve, p. 105.

  38. Ibid., p. 132.

  39. Ibid., p. 107.

  40. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings.”

  41. R. Plomin, “Child Development and Molecular Genetics: 14 Years Later,” Child Development 84, no. 1 (2013): 104–20.

  42. J. R. Flynn, What Is Intelligence? Beyond the Flynn Effect (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 2.

  43. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings.”

  44. Ibid.

  45. T. C. Daley et al., “IQ on the Rise: The Flynn Effect in Rural Kenyan Children,” Psychological Science 14, no. 3 (2003): 215–19; G. Meisenberg et al., “The Flynn Effect in the Caribbean: Generational Change in Test Performance in Dominica,” Mankind Quarterly 46 (2005): 29–70.

  46. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings,” p. 140.

  47. Ibid., p. 141.

  48. Ibid.

  49. R. Plomin and M. Rutter, “Child Development, Molecular Genetics, and What to Do with Genes Once They Are Found,” Child Development 69, no. 4 (1998): 1223–42.

  50. R. Plomin, “Child Development and Molecular Genetics: 14 Years Later,” Child Development 84, no. 1 (2013): 104.

  51. M. Trzaskowski et al., “DNA Evidence for Strong Genetic Stability and Increasing Heritability of Intelligence from Age 7 to 12,” Molecular Psychiatry 19, no. 3 (2014): 380–84.

  52. C. F. Chabris et al., “Most Reported Genetic Associations with General Intelligence Are Probably False Positives,” Psychological Science 23, no. 11 (2011): 1314–23.

  53. B. Benyamin et al., “Childhood Intelligence Is Heritable, Highly Polygenic and Associated with FNBP1L,” Molecular Psychiatry 19, no. 2 (2014): 253–58; G. Davies et al., “Genome-Wide Association Studies Establish That Human Intelligence Is Highly Heritable and Polygenic,” Molecular Psychiatry 6, no. 10 (2011): 996–1005.