Alexander
Page 40
Sacrifice at the Battle of The Granicus: The Origins of a Favorite Stratagem of Alexander the Great,”
AncW 18 (1988), pp. 3–20; and also Devine, A., “Alexander the Great,” in Warfare in the Ancient
World, ed. J. Hackett (New York, 1989), pp. 104–129.
45 the eastern banks Arrian, 1.14.4–5. Arrian claims that the Persian cavalry were drawn up in an
extended phalanx on the bank parallel to the river; but if the Persian cavalrymen were stationed at the
very edge of the riverbank, their tactical advantage as cavalrymen would have been wasted.
45 Greek mercenary infantry Devine, A., “Alexander the Great,” in Warfare in the Ancient World,
ed. J. Hackett (New York, 1989), p. 109.
45 to meet them Arrian, 1.13.3. According to Diodorus, 17.19.2–3, Alexander followed Parmenio’s
advice, waiting until dawn before he brought his army across the river, before the Persians could stop
him. Diodorus does not explain, however, how the Persians managed to miss tens of thousands of
Macedonians crossing the river at dawn, thus giving away their carefully prepared positional
advantage. If the Persian commanders allowed this to happen, they really were incompetent.
45 crossing the Hellespont Arrian, 1.13.6.
45 numbers were superior Devine, A., “Alexander the Great,” in Warfare in the Ancient World, ed.
J. Hackett (New York, 1989), p. 109.
46 several infantry battalions Arrian, 1.14.1–3.
46 his helmet’s crest Plutarch, 16.4.
46 opposite it Arrian, 1.14.4.
46 precipitate the combat Arrian, 1.14.5.
46 into the water Arrian, 1.14.6. For other interpretations of the battle, see Badian, E., “The Battle
of the Granicus: A New Look,” Ancient Macedonia 2 (1977), pp. 271–293; Foss, C., “The Battle of
the Granicus,” Ancient Macedonia 2 (1977), pp. 495–502; Hammond, N., “The Battle of the Granicus
River,” JHS 100 (1980), pp. 73–88.
46 around three feet The time of year when the battle was fought. See Plutarch, 16.2, and
Hammond, N., “The Battle of the Granicus River,” JHS 100 (1980), pp. 73–88.
46 mentioned by Arrian Arrian, 1.14.4; also cited in the article by Foss, C., “The Battle of the
Granicus: A New Look,” Ancient Macedonia 2 (1977), pp. 495–502.
47 it could be attacked effectively Devine, A., “A Pawn-Sacrifice at the Battle of The Granicus:
The Origins of a Favorite Stratagem of Alexander the Great,” AncW 18 (1988), p. 12.
47 the Thessalian cavalry Diodorus, 17.19.6.
47 slightly wounding him Diodorus, 17.20.6.
47 had been a bit shorter Pascal, Pensées, 2.162.
47 commanders fell fighting Arrian, 1.16.3
49 asked for quarter Arrian, 1.16.2; Plutarch, 16.6, alone reports the request for quarter. Devine,
A., “A Pawn-Sacrifice at the Battle of The Granicus: The Origins of a Favorite Stratagem of
Alexander the Great,” AncW 18 (1988), pp. 9–10, argues that the figures for the number of Greek
mercenaries have been highly inflated.
49 on his behalf Griffith, G., The Mercenaries of the Hellenistic World (Cambridge, 1935); and
more recently, Thompson, M., “Paying the Mercenaries,” in Festschrift für Leo Mildenberg:
Numismatik, Kunstgeschichte, Archäologie, ed. A. Houghton (Wetteren, 1984), pp. 241–247.
50 expect no mercy One indication that the fate of the Greek mercenaries at Granicus did not deter
other mercenaries is the fact that Darius gathered together an even larger number of Greek
mercenaries to fight at the subsequent battle of Issos.
50 Dium in Macedonia Arrian, 1.16.4.
50 “granted immunity from” Arrian, 1.16.5, translation from Sélincourt (1971), p. 75.
50 who had died Arrian, 1.16.6.
51 city of Miletos Diodorus, 17.22.1.
51 “against their countrymen” Arrian, 1.16.6, translation from Sélincourt (1971), p. 76.
51 “Alexander, son of Philip” Arrian, 1.16.7.
51 with the Greeks Diodorus, 16.89.2.
52 Risky Visions of Genius See Solomon, M., Mozart: A Life (New York, 1995), pp. 363–382, for
Mozart’s risky juxtaposition of the beautiful and the disturbing in his mature instrumental music.
CHAPTER 6 The Greek Cities of Asia Minor
54 of his empire For the details, see the important article of Badian, E., “Alexander the Great and
the Greeks of Asia,” in Ancient Society and Institutions (studies presented to V. Ehrenberg) (Oxford,
1966), pp. 37–69.
55 rather than conviction Arrian, 1.17.2.
55 satrapal capital Arrian, 1.17.2.
55 Hermos Valley For the story of the ruling dynasty of Lydia, see Herodotus, 1.6–94.
55 Achaemenid Persian province For its incorporation into the Persian empire, see Kuhrt (1995),
pp. 567–572.
55 “in charge of” Arrian, 1.17.7, translation from Sélincourt (1971), p. 77.
55 garrison the fortress Arrian, 1.17.8.
55 admitting the Macedonians The popular party in this context refers to the supporters of
“democratic” government; that is, government by the many poorer citizens rather than government by
the fewer, wealthy Ephesians. For the political history of Ephesos during these years, see Karwiese,
S., Groβ ist die Artemis von Ephesos (Wien, 1995), pp. 60–62.
55 in her temple Arrian, 1.17.11.
56 the mercenaries fled Arrian, 1.17.9.
56 halted further bloodshed Arrian, 1.17.12.
56 offerings to gods Strabo, 14.1.22.
56 accept the offer Arrian, 1.18.1.
56 paid the Persians Arrian, 1.18.1–2. Wirth, G., “Die σμνταξις” von Kleinasien 334 v. Chr.,”
Chiron 2 (1972), pp. 91–98.
58 city’s Persian garrison Arrian, 1.18.4–5.
58 the city wall Arrian, 1.19.2.
58 at the Granicus Arrian, 1.19.6.
58 imposed upon Miletos Bosworth (1988), p. 46.
58 used for transport Arrian, 1.20.1.
58 disaster at sea Arrian, 1.20.1.
59 characteristic of him Hammond (1997), p. 75.
60 the Mausoleum Hornblower, S., Mausolus (Oxford, 1982).
60 of the Granicus Arrian, 1.20.3.
60 (described in great detail) Diodorus, 17.24.1–27.6.
60 defenders in check Arrian, 1.23.6.
60 Alexander appointed Ada Arrian, 1.23.8.
60 under her control Arrian, 1.23.8.
60 brought to Alexander Arrian, 1.25.4.
60 in assassinating Alexander Arrian, 1.25.3.
61 him as king Arrian, 1.25.1–2; Justin, 11.2.2.
61 the Macedonian army Arrian, 1.25.2.
61 arrest the Lyncestian Arrian, 1.25.10.
61 before the conqueror Jacoby (1962), 124 F31, pp. 427–428.
61 holding on to force Arrian, 1.27.4.
61 of the Termessians Arrian, 1.28.1.
61 assault or surrendered Arrian, 1.28.2–8.
62 within sixty days Arrian, 1.29.1–3.
62 (who had been) Arrian, 1.24.3–5.
62 men from Elis Arrian, 1.29.4.
62 to the sea Kuhrt (1995), pp. 562–566.
62 for the “barbarians” Arrian, 1.29.5.
62 the northern Aegean Arrian, 2.1.1–2; Diodorus, 17.29.2.
62 “a change in” Diodorus, 17.29.3, translation from Welles (1963), p. 199.
62 a Persian attack Arrian, 2.2.3–4.
63 large, pitched battle Diodorus, 17.30.7.
63 together in Babylon Diodorus, 17.31.2; Arrian, 2.8.8, gives the Persian total as 600,000.
63 of the war Arrian, 2.1.3.
63 tied its yoke Arrian, 2.3.1. For the episode
, see Schmidt, L., “Der gordische Knoten und seine
Lösung,” Antaios 1 (1959), pp. 305–318; and Fredricksmeyer, E., “Alexander, Midas and the Oracle
at Gordium,” CP 56 (1961), pp. 160–168.
63 civil strife Arrian, 2.3.5.
63 would rule Asia Arrian, 2.3.6.
63 “I have untied it” Arrian, 2.3.7. Callisthenes, the official historian of the campaign, who (we
can be sure) reflected how Alexander wanted this episode to be remembered, possibly is behind this
version of the story. The story of Alexander cutting the knot with a sword perhaps was meant to
symbolize how Alexander would become lord of Asia.
63 pulling the yoke free Arrian, 2.3.7.
63 undo the knot Arrian, 2.3.8.
64 pillars and caves Arrian, 2.4.1–2.
64 out of the pass Arrian, 2.4.4.
64 at Alexander’s advance Arrian, 2.4.6.
CHAPTER 7 The Battle of Issos
65 and sleeplessness Arrian, 2.4.7–8.
65 “Beware of Philip” Arrian, 2.4.9.
65 he would recover Arrian, 2.4.10.
65 category of friends Diodorus, 17.31.6.
66 as Sardanapalus Sardanapalus was the Greek name for the real Assyrian king Assurbanipal of
the neo-Assyrian period (c. 668–631). Later Greek writers such as Ktesias attributed his downfall to
his luxurious lifestyle. For the history of Assyria during the period, see Kuhrt (1995), pp. 473–546.
66 “Sardanapalus, son of Anakyndaraxes” Arrian, 2.5.4.
66 Harpalus, fled For the episode, see Badian, E., “The First Flight of Harpalus,” Historia 9
(1960), pp. 245–246; Heckel, W., “The Flight of Harpalus and Tauriskos,” CP 72 (1977), pp. 133–
135; Bosworth (1988), p. 57; and Worthington, I. “The First Flight of Harpalus Reconsidered, ” GaR
31 (1984), pp. 161–169.
66 spring of 331 Arrian, 3.6.4.
66 welcomed back For that reason, some historians have speculated that Harpalus’ “first flight”
from Alexander was a cover for what was in fact a secret mission of some kind. It must be said that if
Harpalus embarked upon a secret mission, the evidence for what that mission was has been very
effectively hidden.
66 600,000 fighting men Arrian, 2.8.8.
66 Plutarch concurs Plutarch, 18.4.
67 number as 400,000 Diodorus, 17.31.2; Justin, 11.6.11.
67 alone as 30,000 Curtius, 3.2.1–9.
67 (the so-called Kardakes) Arrian, 2.8.5–6; Bosworth (1988), p. 57.
67 the smaller force For Charidemus, see Arrian, 1.10.4–6. It is fascinating that both Alexander and
Darius are represented in the Greek and Roman sources as ignoring the advice of their advisers; but
in Darius’ case, ignoring the advice of sage Greeks always leads to disaster.
67 for his empire Bosworth (1988), p. 34.
67 to Darius I Herodotus, 5.18.1, 6.44.1.
67 and the Macedonians Arrian, 2.6.1.
67 south to Damascus Diodorus, 17.32.3; Arrian, 2.11.9–10.
67 (where he learned) Arrian, 2.6.1.
67 finally to Issos Arrian, 2.7.1; on Alexander’s (disputed) route, see Devine, A., “The Location of
Castabulum and Alexander’s Route from Mallus to Myriandrus,” Acta Classica 27 (1984), pp. 127–
129.
67 to Myriandrus Arrian, 2.6.2.
67 for protection Curtius, 3.7.8–10.
68 his vast infantry Arrian, 2.6.3.
68 north of Issos Arrian, 2.7.1.
68 had left there Arrian, 2.7.1.
68 haunt the perpetrators For instance, on the island of Iwo Jima, where in the early weeks of
1945, the Japanese torture and execution of American prisoners helped to motivate the U.S. Marines
to take the island, after one of the bloodiest battles of World War II. For the story, see the incredibly
powerful account written by the son of one of the Marines who fought there, Bradley, J., Flags of Our
Fathers (New York, 2000).
68 behind the Macedonians Arrian, 2.7.2.
68 embarrassment of choice Vauvenargues, Reflections and Maxims, 1746.
68 cut off by land He certainly could not be resupplied by sea indefinitely.
69 Pillar of Jonah Arrian, 2.8.1–2; Bosworth (1988), p. 60.
69 South of the Pinarus River The exact location of this river has been debated by scholars for most
of this past century. Given the changes in the courses of the rivers running down from the Amanus
mountains in this area, it is probable that the exact site of the battle never will be identified certainly,
although strong arguments have been put forth for the Kuru Çay, a stream about fifteen km north of the
Pillar of Jonah, where the coastal plain is about four km wide. See Bosworth (1988), p. 60. Devine,
A., “Grand Tactics at the Battle of Issus,” AncW 12 (1985), pp. 42–46, has argued for an
identification of the Pinarus with the Payas, but in my view that identification causes insuperable
difficulties with some of the reported details of the action of the battle, above all, the cavalry charge
of Alexander. The effect of that charge upon Darius may have been exaggerated (as will be argued),
but to claim that it really could not or did not take place because of the topographical features of the
Payas (steep banks of the river, etc.) is problematic.
69 into formation safely Arrian, 2.8.5.
69 the Amanus Range Quoted in Polybius, Histories, 12.17.4.
69 army into position Arrian, 2.8.5.
69 from the rear Arrian, 2.8.8.
69 the numbers involved Arrian, 2.8.8.
70 fighting for Greece Arrian, 2.7.3–9.
70 on the rocky ground Arrian, 2.8.2.
70 to a depth of eight men Arrian, 2.8.2.
70 the seaward side Arrian, 2.8.3–4.
70 Parmenio on the left Arrian, 2.8.9.
70 kings in battle Arrian, 2.8.10–11.
70 that high ground Arrian, 2.9.1–2.
71 concealing the movement Arrian, 2.9.3.
71 main attacking force Arrian, 2.9.4.
71 elsewhere with stockades Arrian, 2.10.1.
71 relatively quickly The exact date is uncertain; the battle probably was fought in November 333
B.C.E. For in-depth scholarly studies of the battle, see Devine, A., “The Strategies of Alexander the
Great and Darius III in the Issus Campaign (333 BC),” AncW 12 (1985), pp. 25–38; and Devine, A.,
“Grand Tactics at the Battle of Issus,” AncW 12 (1985), pp. 39–59. Devine bases his reconstruction
of the battle on Arrian (whose source must have been Ptolemy, who in turn used Callisthenes as a
framework) and Curtius (based also upon Callisthenes), but does so without ignoring Parmenio’s
contribution to the Macedonians’ success or denigrating Darius. A similar reconstruction is given in
Devine, A., “Alexander the Great,” in Warfare in the Ancient World, ed. J. Hackett (New York,
1989), pp. 113–116.
71 Alexander was upon them Arrian, 2.10.4.
71 and unbroken line Arrian, 2.10.5.
73 lost their lives Arrian, 2.10.7.
73 cutting them to pieces Arrian, 2.11.1.
73 in headlong flight Arrian, 2.11.2.
73 under Alexander’s attack Arrian, 2.11.4.
73 Persian king himself Diodorus, 17.33.5.
73 battle raged indecisively Diodorus, 17.33.6.
73 in the front of their bodies Curtius, 3.11.9.
73 dagger wound in the thigh Diodorus, 17.34.5–6.
73 distracted with pain Curtius, 3.11.11. According to Aelian, On the Nature of Animals, 6.48., the
horse was a mare who had just recently given birth.
> 74 the Persian left collapsed This aspect of Arrian’s presentation perhaps is based upon
Callisthenes’ propaganda.
74 Philoxenos of Eretria Bosworth (1988), pp. 61–62.
74 during the engagement Rumpf, A., “Zum Alexander Mosaik,” MdI(A) 77 (1962), pp. 229–241;
Cohen, A., The Alexander Mosaic: Stories of Victory and Defeat (Cambridge, 1997); see also
Badian, E., “A Note on the ‘Alexander Mosaic,’” in The Eye Expanded: Life and the Arts in Greco-
Roman Antiquity, ed. F. Titchener and R. Moorton, Jr. (Berkeley, 1999), pp. 75–92.
74 personal bravery Diodorus, 17.6.1–2.
74 not be unbroken Nylander, C., “Darius III—the Coward King: Point and Counterpoint,” in
Alexander the Great: Reality and Myth, ed. J. Carlsen et al. (Rome, 1993), pp. 145–159.
74 covered with bodies Diodorus, 17.34.9.
74 the Persian dead Arrian, 2.11.8.
75 than 10,000 cavalry Arrian, 2.11.8; Diodorus, 17.36.6; Curtius, 3.11.27; Plutarch, 20.5; although
Justin, 11.9.10, reports 61,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry, and 40,000 captured.
75 appears in Curtius Curtius, 3.11.27.
75 allied cavalry casualties Diodorus, 17.36.6.
75 to the Euphrates Arrian, 2.13.1.
75 the Persian cause Curtius, 4.1.34–35.
75 8,000 mercenaries Arrian, 2.13.2–3. They eventually reached Tripolis in Phoenicia and from
there sailed first to Cyprus and then over to Egypt, where Amyntas attempted (unsuccessfully) to make
himself governor.
75 their allies there For Agis and his war against the Macedonians, see Badian, E., “Agis III,”
Hermes 95 (1967), pp. 170–192; Bosworth, A., “The Mission of Amphoterus and the Outbreak of
Agis’ War,” Phoenix 29 (1975), pp. 27–43; Bosworth (1988), p. 63; and again Badian, E., “Agis III:
Revisions and Reflections,” in Ventures into Greek History: Essays in Honour of N.G.L. Hammond,
ed. I. Worthington (Oxford, 1994), pp. 258–292.
75 fleet around Chios Arrian, 2.13.5.
76 with great enthusiasm Arrian, 2.11.9–10.
76 the whole army Arrian, 2.12.1.
76 by their courage Diodorus, 17.40.1.
76 the victory followed Diodorus, 17.40.1.
76 during the battle Arrian, 2.12.2.
76 “This, so it seems” Plutarch, 20.8.
76 marks, ceremonies Arrian, 2.12.3–5, translation from Sélincourt (1971), p. 123.
77 protector of men Arrian, 2.12.6–7. A play on Alexander’s name in Greek, which could be