Crucible of Command

by William C. Davis

  Unfortunately, just two days after his decision to resume command, he received a delayed threat of dismissal from Halleck that reinforced Grant’s conviction that his reputation and usefulness there were compromised. “There is such a disposition to find fault with me,” he responded on March 13, “that I again ask to be relieved from further duty until I can be placed right in the estimation of those higher in authority.”63 Halleck replied that all was now well. “The power is in your hands; use it, & you will be sustained by all,” he wired. Grant should take command of his army “& lead it on to new victories.”64 On March 14 Grant relented. For a change the timing was propitious. Two days before he landed the army at Savannah, on the east bank of the Tennessee about fifteen miles above the Mississippi border, Smith sustained an apparently minor leg injury that became infected and soon made it impossible for him to exercise command. Grant had to take over, and late on March 15 he was ready, set to leave the next day. “What you may look for is hard to say,” he wrote Julia before he left. There might be a big fight, but “I have already been in so many that it begins to feel like home to me.”65

  Grant reached Savannah on March 17, and one of the first things to meet him was a report from a scout that enemy forces south of the river between Corinth and the Alabama line numbered 150,000, perhaps one-third of them at Corinth under Johnston’s direct command. He dismissed the figures as exaggerated, but Halleck did not. Indeed, just the day before Halleck had enjoined Grant to “strictly obey” his orders not to bring on a general battle. Ordering Buell to bring a substantial reinforcement to converge with Grant’s, Halleck directed that “we must strike no blow until we are strong enough to admit no doubt of the result.”66 Unlike Grant, Halleck wanted victory without risk, a policy that surrendered all the advantage of time to the enemy.

  Grant planned to move the command down the west bank to Pittsburg Landing. From there Smith had intended to send an expedition to a point just east of the Confederate concentration at Corinth, some twenty miles south, then cut the town’s rail lines and isolate Johnston from reinforcement and supply from every source except New Orleans and western Mississippi.67 He found divisions under Sherman and Hurlbut already at Pittsburg Landing, with Lew Wallace’s division at Crump’s Landing six miles north, and McClernand’s and Smith’s divisions at Savannah. He sent all but McClernand forward to Pittsburg Landing. Within twenty-four hours he concluded that Johnston really numbered about 40,000, half at Corinth, an estimate that proved remarkably accurate.68 On Grant’s first full day at Savannah it was three in the morning before he had a moment to write to Julia telling her his next battle “will be a big lick so far as numbers engaged is concerned,” and he felt entirely confident of success. He also found that the headache of the last few weeks was all but gone. Responsibility and activity were a tonic to his system.69

  Over the next fortnight he addressed almost every facet of army organization just as he had when training the 21st Illinois. Grant the quartermaster reappeared, enforcing system and order on the disbursement of rations and equipment, and emphasizing that any property taken from the enemy belonged to the government and not to the men who took it. Interestingly, given his own behavior at Monterey, he directed that supply officers were “on no account” to leave their duties to go into the fight during battle.70 He visited Sherman at Pittsburg Landing on March 19 to get the latest reports on Confederates at Corinth. At first he intended to lead Sherman’s division in person to cut Corinth’s communications, suggesting a subtle interpretation of Halleck’s order not to engage the foe. “If a battle on anything like equal terms seems to be inevitable,” he wrote, he would not retreat and risk demoralization, but move against another point so his men would feel they had fulfilled their objective. Implicit was that if he saw a chance to strike at favorable odds, he might take it, a subtle distinction that Halleck missed.71

  Within twenty-four hours Grant got reports of more than 250 boxcars loaded with reinforcements arriving in Corinth. There was no chance of taking the town now without a battle, so he determined to wait for Halleck to send further instructions, telling Smith that he feared the Confederates were growing in strength as fast as Grant’s own command, the price of Halleck’s delay. “The sooner we attack,” he said on March 23, “the easier will be the task.”72 That same evening he wrote Julia that “I want to whip these rebels once more in a big fight.”73

  Jesse Root Grant, the father who both belittled his son and boasted of his future. Library of Congress

  Standing at left is Brevet Second Lieutenant Ulysses S. Grant, in 1845 in Louisiana. Standing at right is Lieutenant Alexander Hays. Library of Congress

  The cabin Grant built on his ill-starred “Hardscrabble” farm outside St. Louis. Library of Congress

  Brigadier General U. S. Grant in October 1861 at Cairo, Illinois. The gloves and sword would be seldom seen in the war, and the spadelike beard was soon trimmed. Library of Congress

  Julia Dent Grant almost always posed with her left side to the camera, to hide the strabismus that caused her right eye to wander. Though it was operable, Grant preferred her just as she was. An early postwar image. Library of Congress

  Grant’s patron Congressman Elihu B. Washburne of Galena, in 1859. He was Grant’s staunchest friend and supporter. Library of Congress

  Brigadier General John A. Rawlins, standing at left, stood by Grant (center) throughout the war as guardian of his reputation and conscience, and was a brilliant staff officer. Library of Congress

  Major General Henry W. Halleck went from jealous rival undermining Grant in 1862 to staunch supporter and friend by war’s end. Library of Congress

  Major General Grant at age forty sometime in 1862–1863. The calm eyes have seen Fort Donelson and Shiloh, and look to Chattanooga and beyond. Library of Congress

  President Abraham Lincoln went from a slightly wary ally to an indomitable supporter of Grant, whom he made lieutenant general just one month after this February 9, 1864 portrait. Library of Congress

  Elements of the Army of the Potomac crossing a pontoon bridge at Germanna Ford, May 4, 1864, for the inevitable meeting between Grant and Lee. Library of Congress

  On May 21, 1864, two days after Spotsylvania, soldiers pulled pews out of Massaponax Church for Grant and his officers to confer. Grant sits cross-legged directly beneath the two trees, a bulldog look on his face, cigar in mouth. Library of Congress

  The Massaponax conversation continues, messages coming in and going out. Grant is writing an order in a book while holding the ever-present cigar in his left hand.

  Grant stands behind the pew at left, looking over General Meade’s shoulder at a map while an aide reports. Library of Congress

  The iconic portrait of Grant, taken at City Point in August 1864. He is calm, businesslike, determined. Library of Congress

  Grant, Julia, and their youngest son, Jesse, at his winter headquarters at City Point, Virginia, winter 1864–1865. Library of Congress

  Major General William Tecumseh Sherman, Grant’s closest friend in the high command, and his most trusted lieutenant. Library of Congress

  Grant and some of his staff at City Point, winter 1864–1865. Rawlins stands immediately left of Grant. Colonel Ely Parker stands third from the right. Library of Congress

  The home of Wilmer McLean at Appomattox Court House, April 1865, just days after Grant and Lee met in the front parlor to begin the end. Library of Congress

  Lieutenant General Grant in May 1865, still wearing a black crepe band on his left arm in mourning for slain President Lincoln. Library of Congress

  The dignitaries’ viewing stand on Washington’s Pennsylvania Avenue, for the Grand Review of the victorious Union armies, May 23–24, 1865. Grant is barely visible in the corner beneath the large star on the left. Library of Congress

  General-in-Chief Grant visiting Fort Sanders, Wyoming, in late July 1868, during a trip to inspect progress on the transcontinental railroad. Grant stands beneath the pillar on the left; Sherman
, in a dark suit, stands in profile in the center. Library of Congress

  Grant’s first inauguration as president of the United States, March 4, 1869. Library of Congress

  President Ulysses S. Grant. Library of Congress

  The dying Grant writing his memoirs on the porch at his Mt. McGregor house, June 27, 1885. Library of Congress

  Grant at Mt. McGregor on July 19, 1885. Three days earlier he won his last battle when he finished his memoirs. Four days after this photo was made he was dead. Library of Congress

  Grant’s mausoleum shortly after its completion. There he would rest eternally with only his beloved Julia beside him. Library of Congress

  Grant left the disposition of the troops at Pittsburg Landing to Sherman, who placed his own division in advance astride the Corinth road near Shiloh Church, and McClernand’s division when it arrived several hundred yards to the rear on either side of the road. Hurlbut and Smith spread in a wide semicircle around the landing touching the river at both ends, and Wallace remained six miles downstream at Crump’s Landing on another road to Corinth. Thus in a move against Corinth, Wallace and the main column could march simultaneously to converge a few miles above the Confederate position.74 Grant expected that by March 27 Buell and up to 30,000 ought to be ninety miles distant, and thanks to soggy roads and destroyed bridges, at least a week from joining him. As the end of the month approached he confessed to Julia that he did not know when he might move the army. “A big fight may be looked for someplace before a great while,” he told her. “You need not fear but what I will come out triumphantly.”

  Grant could have been ill at ease over his high command. Smith’s health continued to deteriorate, and late in the month Grant had to replace him with W. H. L. Wallace, a brigadier for all of one day before he replaced Smith. Sherman’s was the only one of the six divisions commanded by a West Pointer, and he at least had battlefield experience as a brigade commander at Manassas. Moreover, though the two were not yet close friends, they had known each other for some years before the war.75 McClernand, the only one with combat experience in division command, was a politician and a growing irritant. Lew Wallace was a lawyer and small-time politician who scarcely concealed his disdain for Grant, while Hurlbut was a politician and a genuine inebriate. The commander of the new 6th Division was the same haughty Benjamin Prentiss Grant once arrested for insubordination.76 Grant could see them pulling wires for self-advancement, particularly McClernand, but he refused to play the game. “I have no future ambition,” he said. He just wanted to end the war. If others wanted to scramble for credit, they were welcome to it.77

  On March 31 Grant shifted his headquarters to Pittsburg Landing and learned that the head of Buell’s column was still probably sixty miles distant, due to arrive by Sunday or Monday April 6–7.78 They should have more than 70,000 when combined and Grant hoped Halleck would then let him move on Corinth.79 So anxious was he that yet again he neglected to consider what the enemy might do first. After the fall of Fort Donelson Johnston achieved a brilliant concentration of troops from all across the Confederacy at Corinth, Mississippi, including regiments sent by Lee from the Atlantic coast. He intended to drive Grant all the way to the Ohio if possible. On April 1 Johnston ordered his corps on the alert to be ready to march within twenty-four hours.

  Visiting Pittsburg Landing every day, Grant heard occasional firing in the direction of Corinth as his outposts encountered enemy cavalry patrols, then on April 1 Lew Wallace briefly skirmished with rebel infantry a few miles south of Crump’s Landing. Infantry meant more than just patrols. Grant misread it as an attempt to cut communications between Savannah and Pittsburg Landing or else concentrate against Wallace, while diverting his attention by skirmishing with his main line at Pittsburg Landing.80 Sherman dismissed virtually all such sightings as panicked exaggeration by inexperienced volunteers. Two days later when the first of Buell’s divisions approached Savannah, Grant confidently wrote Buell that “all difficulties in our neighborhood will be remedied before your arrival.”81 There was no threat to his army. He reinforced Lew Wallace on April 4, and alerted W. H. L. Wallace to join him should he be attacked, though Grant told Sherman “I look for nothing of the kind.” Still, he told Sherman to be vigilant for enemy movement in the direction of Crump’s Landing.82 The next day Grant inspected Sherman’s lines, and felt no alarm over occasional skirmishing barely three miles in their front. Returning to Savannah he found a message from Buell that he expected to arrive the next day with one and perhaps two divisions, though he still had twenty-eight miles to march.83

  Meanwhile, Grant reorganized the army to keep pace with its growth. He shifted cavalry and artillery units out of infantry brigades and reassigned them to divisional control, and put newly promoted brigadiers at the head of brigades.84 Thus some of his nineteen brigade leaders had new and unfamiliar commands, and all of his division commanders had to manage cavalry and artillery as well as infantry. In reviewing the army he found it in good shape, despite a few units still in gray militia uniforms that might cause confusion in action.85 They were all sensible actions to cope with the army’s growth, but not changes to make on the eve of battle, more indication that Grant expected no offensive by Johnston. Buell was on his doorstep, and in a day or two his combined force should top 75,000. There was no confirmed intelligence of major enemy forces in his front, and thus no reason to fear that he was not master of the situation.

  Grant was tired. “It would be a great relief not to have to think for a short time,” he wrote Julia on April 3.86 The next day his horse took a fall, badly spraining Grant’s ankle and putting him on crutches for the next several days. But he did not let up. He hoped Halleck would let him move on Corinth soon. “When I do there will probably be the greatest battle fought of the War,” he told Julia. Concerned for the inevitable casualties, he had no doubt of the result, feeling “as unconcerned about it as if nothing more than a review was to take place.”87

  Grant did alert subordinates on April 4 of what to do in case of an alarm, but neither he nor his division commanders had their men prepare even light defenses. Smith had said digging demoralized volunteers bent on taking the war to the enemy. Grant greatly respected his old mentor’s views, and himself saw how digging earthworks impacted morale around Cairo. His time at Pittsburg Landing was better spent organizing and training this new army. That evening when Grant went to the scene of skirmishing a couple of miles to Sherman’s front, he learned that infantry and artillery were with the enemy cavalry. That should have concerned both generals, but Sherman told him “I do not apprehend anything like an attack on our position.” The next day Sherman sent more detail on the skirmish, adding that the enemy was “in some considerable force” barely four miles southwest of his camps. That ought to have commanded Grant’s attention, for it was the first time that Sherman credited any information on enemy movements. Reports now suggested that the foe had grown to 60,000–80,000, but Grant cautioned that the information was not from reliable sources.

  His confidence only grew when Brigadier General William Nelson’s division marched into Savannah and confirmed that Buell’s other divisions would arrive on April 6 and 7. Grant wrote Halleck that “I have scarsely the faintest idea of an attack [general one], being made upon us but will be prepared should such a thing take place.”88 His strength now would at least equal Johnston’s, and his men were better trained, armed, equipped, and motivated. For weeks deserters had given deliberately false reports of demoralization in Confederate ranks supposedly composed of men virtually forced into uniform, and Grant hardly expected such an army to perform well. Thus when he met Nelson, an old schoolmate from the Maysville Academy, Grant told him “there will be no fight at Pittsburg Landing; we will have to go to Corinth.”89

  He spent the night at Savannah. The next morning, April 6, Grant read his mail and then began breakfast shortly after seven o’clock when he heard something. Stepping onto a porch he recognized the sound of distant artillery. Cannon me
ant more than a skirmish. Immediately he walked with his staff to his headquarters boat Tigress and ordered her to get up steam, and meanwhile began rushing all available support to Pittsburg Landing. He ordered Nelson to march downstream opposite the landing, where transports would ferry him across, sent an order to Buell’s other divisions to hurry to Savannah where transports would take them to the landing, and notified Buell that Sherman and probably McClernand were under attack. “I have been looking for this,” he wrote, though he had not expected it for another day or two.90 That hardly fit with what he told Nelson and Halleck just the day before. Yet again, as at Belmont and Fort Donelson, Grant had been surprised. He was human enough not to admit it. He never did.

  As Tigress passed Crump’s Landing, Grant yelled to Lew Wallace to be ready to march at his order, then in his cabin changed into full uniform, with sword, sidearm, and sash, rather than his usual simple blouse with insignia of rank. He judged that the more he looked like a general, the more confidence it would give his men. Around nine o’clock he reached the landing. As his horse was being brought off the boat he saw 2,000 or more wounded and demoralized men huddled below the bluff.91 He mounted, tied his crutch to the saddle, and rode up to the plateau where officers informed him of the situation. The enemy had attacked in great strength and forced the Federals back some distance before Sherman got them in hand, and still he was being driven onto McClernand, while on the left Prentiss had been pressed back more than a mile.