Astoria: John Jacob Astor and Thomas Jefferson's Lost Pacific Empire: A Story of Wealth, Ambition, and Survival

by Stark, Peter

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  “Sailors Who Cannot Swim.” New York Times, May 3, 1883.

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  Stark, Peter. Last Breath: Cautionary Tales from the Limits of Human Endurance. New York: Ballantine Books, 2001.

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  Thwaites, Reuben Gold, ed. Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804–1806: With Facsimiles, Maps, Plans, Views, Portraits, and a Bibliography. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1905.

  Tocqueville, Alexis de. Letters from America. Ed. Frederick Brown. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010.

  United States Geological Survey. Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/, retrieved October 6, 2013.

  Vakoch, Douglas A., ed. Psychology of Space Exploration. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of Communications, 2011.

  Wang, Jack, John C. Thornton, Mary Russell, Santiago Burastero, Steven Heymsfield, and Richard N. Pierson Jr. “Asians Have Lower Body Mass Index (BMI) but Higher Percent Body Fat than do Whites: Comparisons of Anthropometric Measurements.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60, no. 1 (July 1994): 23–28.

  Williams, Stanley T. The Life of Washington Irving. Vols. 1–2. New York: Oxford University Press, 1935.

  Zug, James. American Traveler: The Life and Adventures of John Ledyard, the Man Who Dreamed of Walking the World. New York: Basic Books, 2005.

  CREDITS

  John Jacob Astor, after a Portrait by Gilbert Stuart, collection of the New-York Historical Society, negative #57707

  “Mrs. Astor (from a Miniature),” print collection, Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints, and Photographs, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations

  “Walldorf House,” print collection, Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints, and Photographs, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations

  Portrait of Lieutenant Jonathan Thorn, Naval History & Heritage Command, Washington, D.C.

  John Jacob Astor by John Wesley Jarvis, ca. 1825, National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution/Art Resource, NY

  Wilson Hunt Price, Missouri History Museum, St. Louis.

  Tontine Coffee House, N.Y.C. by Francis Guy, ca. 1797, collection of the New-York Historical Society, Purchase, Louis Durr Fund

  Canoes in a Fog, Lake Superior by Frances Anne Hopkins, 1869, reproduced with permission from the Glenbow Museum, Calgary, Alberta

  Engraving of voyageur’s face illustration by Carl W. Bertsch, from The Voyageur by Grace Lee Nute

  View from Floyd’s Grave, 1300 Miles Above St. Louis by George Catlin, 1832, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C./Art Resource, NY

  Stu-mick-o-súcks, Buffalo Bull’s Back Fat, Head Chief, Blood Tribe by George Catlin, 1832, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C./Art Resource, NY

  Mih-Tutta-Hangkusch, a Mandan Village by Karl Bodmer, 1841, Akg-images.com

  The Interior of the Hut of a Mandan Chief by Karl Bodmer, ca. 1832, Wisconsin Historical Society, 6341

  Sha-kó-ka, Mint, a Pretty Girl by George Catlin, 1832, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C./Art Resource, NY

  Buffalo Chase over Prairie Bluffs by George Catlin, early 1830s, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C./Art Resource, NY

  “The American Falls of Lewis Fork,” Rare Books Division, Special Collections, J. Willard Marriott Library, University of Utah

  Snake River Canyon, Idaho Historical Society, 62-1.0

  Entrevue de l’expedition de M. Kotzebue avec le roi Tammeamea dans l’ile d’Ovayhi, Iles Sandwich by Louis Choris, 1827, National Library of Australia, 2872081

  Sea Otter, by S. Smith, after John Webber, in James Cook, A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean . . . Performed under the Direction of Captains Cook, Clerke, and Gore . . . 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780 (London: W. Strahan, 1780), engraving, Rare Book & Special Collections Division (16.5)

  “Tenaktak canoes,” Northwestern University Library, in Edward S. Curtis, The North American Indian (Cologne: Taschen, 2003)

  Interior of Whale House of Chief Klart-Reech, Klukwan, Alaska. c. 1895, P87-0013, Alaska State Library, Winter & Pond Photograph Collection

  “Tluwulahu mask—Tswatenok,” Northwestern University Library, in Edward S. Curtis, The North American Indian (Cologne: Taschen, 2003)

  Yéil X’eenh (Raven Screen), ca. 1810, attributed to Kadyisdu.axch’, Tlingit, Kiks.adi Clan, active late eighteenth to early nineteenth century, Gaanaxteidi’, Klukwan village, Frog House, spruce and paint, Seattle Art Museum, gift of John H. Hauberg, 79.98, photograph by Paul Macapia

  Ka’heit’am (Stone Club), pre-1778, Northwest Coast, Nuu’chah’nulth, ground and pecked basalt, human hair, and spruce pitch, Seattle Art Museum, gift of John H. Hauberg, 91.1.21

  “View of the Falkland Islands,” in Parsons Avery and Gabriel Franchère, Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America

  “Entrance of the Columbia River,” in Parsons Avery and Gabriel Franchère, Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America

  Illustration of an engraving of voyageurs portaging a canoe by Carl W. Bertsch, in Grace Lee Nute, The Voyageur

  “Astoria, as It Was in 1813,” in Parsons Avery and Gabriel Franchère, Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America

  “J. Jacob Astor’s Former Residence, 88th St. near East River,” print collection, Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints, and Photographs, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations

  Portrait of Robert Stuart, Missouri History Museum, St. Louis, MO

  Portrait of Donald Mackenzie, Chautauqua County Historical Society, Westfield, NY

  Portrait of Gabriel Franchère, Minnesota Historical Society, por 27358 p1

  Portrait of Alexander Ross, Archives of Manitoba, Ross, Alexander 4 (N21467)

  INDEX

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  Aiken, Job, 82, 83, 85, 89, 192

  Alaska: Beaver mission and, 261; Hunt in, 274–75, 292; Russia sale to U.S. of, 301. See also Russian fur traders

  Albatross (Hunt/Astor ship), 276–77, 279, 281

  Arikara Indians, 111–12, 117–24, 125–26

  Astor Bentzon, Magdalen (daughter), 93, 164–65

  Astor, John Jacob: ambitions of, 9–12, 14–15, 26, 96; appearance of, 9, 19; and blame for failure of Astoria expedition, 288–89; criticisms of, 301; death of, 301; family/descendants of, 8, 9, 11, 93, 164–66, 294, 301–2; image of, 302; legacy of, 260, 296, 302–3; as New York City landowner, 12, 15, 293, 301; personal and professional background of, 8–15, 208; personality and character of, 7, 9, 79, 96, 288; retirement of, 293, 294; as risk-taker, 186–87, 288, 303; as role model, 303; vision of, 2, 3, 14–15, 19–21, 25, 76, 94, 286–87, 289, 295, 302, 303; wealth of, 15, 301, 304; wilderness travels of, 13, 14, 166, 208. See also specific person or topic

  Astor, Sarah Todd (wife), 12, 13, 96, 163–64, 165, 240, 293, 301

  Astor, William Backhouse (son), 165, 294, 301

  Astoria: abandonment of, 264, 265–73, 277, 289; as Astor legacy, 260, 296, 302–3; and Astorians concerns about Beaver, 261, 262; Astor’s attempts to protect, 264–65, 277, 287; Astor’s commitment to, 240, 252, 259–60, 264–65, 277; Astor’s lack of information about, 240–41, 259–60; Astor’s reaction to selling of,
282–83, 294, 297; as beginning of American democracy on West Coast, 2; British and, 193–96, 256–57, 281–83, 285; building of, 189–92, 198–99, 217, 218, 221–22, 241–42; Christmas and New Year’s (1811) at, 221; council of war at, 263–64; desertions from, 219; as epicenter of Astor’s global–West coast commerical empire, 2, 20–21, 163, 187, 197, 238–39; and establishment of fur posts, 192–93, 196, 218–19, 238–39, 242, 245–49, 254; as first American colony on West Coast, 2, 197, 241, 303; food and supplies for, 218, 220–21, 222, 227, 237, 238, 241, 242, 252, 257–58, 262, 263, 269, 289; human losses at, 287; Hunt’s return to, 273–74, 276–77, 284; importance of, 264, 297, 298–99, 300, 302–3; leadership at, 170, 187, 190, 191, 219, 225–26, 227–28, 238, 242, 261, 272, 276, 284, 291, 292; McDougall-McTavish agreement about, 271–72, 289; and McTavish-Clarke-Mackenzie meeting, 255–56, 261; naming of, 189–90; North West Company and, 228, 242, 261, 268–69, 271, 281–84; Overland Party arrival at, 217, 218, 223, 225–26, 227; paranoia at, 217–18, 262, 288; picture of, 185; population of, 196–97, 227; remoteness of, 197–99; renamed as Fort George, 285; selling of, 271–72, 282–83, 284, 289, 291, 292, 294–95, 297; siting of, 187–89; stress/depression among members at, 242, 243–45, 262–64, 292; Thompson at, 193–94, 195, 196, 232; Tonquin and, 191–92, 196–97, 217, 218, 244, 262; and U.S. claims to Northwest Coast, 298–99; vulnerability of, 217, 257–58, 259–60; and War of 1812, 252–53, 255–58, 261, 262–63, 264–65; weather at, 218, 219–20, 221, 244, 261–62, 276, 288–89. See also Astoria expedition; specific person

  Astoria expedition: Astor’s lack of information about, 239–41, 259–60; benefits of, 26; blame for failure of, 288–91; funding for, 25; human losses of, 22, 90, 286, 287; Irving commissioned to write story of, 293; leadership of, 22–26; partners in, 24; physical risk in, 25–26; planning for, 25, 93–98, 163–67; recruitment for, 23–25; return to the East of, 284–85; rivals to, 93–98. See also Astoria; Overland Party; Seagoing Party; specific person, ship, or topic

  Baker’s Bay, 187, 188, 189, 191–92, 199, 238

  Baranoff, Count, 274–75, 284, 292, 307

  Beaver (Astor ship): at Astoria, 237–38, 242; Astorians’ concerns about, 261, 262; and Astor’s concerns about War of 1812, 257; Astor’s goblets on, 266; Astor’s instructions for, 237–38, 257, 270; Astor’s lack of information about, 277; and decision to abandon Astoria, 269, 270; in Hawaii, 275–76, 292; Hunt and, 239, 257, 261, 269, 270, 274–77, 289, 292; mission of, 163, 239, 261, 274, 275; number aboard, 288; passengers and crew on, 238, 242, 246, 288. See also Sowle, Cornelius

  Benton, Thomas Hart, 298, 299

  Bentzon, Adrian, 164–65

  Bighorn Mountains, 129, 130

  Blackfeet Indians, 99, 103–4, 110–11, 113–14, 116, 117, 126, 135, 203, 225, 228, 272

  Boit, John, 74–75, 207

  botany, 101–2. See also Bradbury, John; Nuttall, Thomas

  Brackenridge, Henry M., 118–22, 124, 125, 127

  Bradbury, John, 102, 103, 105, 106, 109–10, 115, 118–24, 127, 176

  British: Astoria and, 193–96, 256–57, 281–83, 285; Astor’s concerns about, 97, 114, 238, 241, 251–54, 257–58; claims to Northwest Coast of, 97, 232, 294, 300; French culture clash with, 33–34; as fur traders, 13, 14–15, 33–34, 74; Seven Years’ War and, 34, 45; U.S. relations with, 16, 35, 76–77, 97, 114, 238, 241, 251–54, 257–58, 294. See also Royal Navy, British; War of 1812; specific person

  Caldron Linn, 147, 148, 149, 152, 161, 222, 228–29, 239

  cannibalism, 183

  Caratouch Indians, 266–68

  Carriere, Michael (voyageur), 178, 179, 183, 223

  catabolism, 161–62

  China: Astor’s tea trade with, 15; and Astor’s vision of commerical empire, 15, 21, 22, 163; Cook’s trade with, 71; fur trade with, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 206, 261, 275; and inauguration of Astor’s emporium, 192; and Jefferson’s vision for West Coast, 22; lack of knowledge about, 71; Ledyard’s trade with, 72, 73; and Russia-Astor relationship, 25

  Chinook Indians, 188–89, 193, 199, 205, 225, 227, 241, 273, 283–84, 305

  Chittenden, Hiram, 110, 287, 300

  citizenship: of Canadians on Astoria expedition, 253–54

  Clappine, Antoine, 144–46, 147, 223

  Clark, William, 51, 125. See also Lewis and Clark expedition

  Clarke, John, 238, 245, 254, 255–56, 265–68, 269, 271, 286

  Clayoquot Indians, 204 n, 302, 306; Tonquin and, 202–16, 302

  Clearwater fur post, 254–57, 262

  clerks: at Astoria, 227, 263; Astoria departure of, 284; as Beaver passengers, 238; Ehninger in charge of, 270; at Falkland Islands, 38, 39, 53–55; in Hawaii, 61–65; on Pedlar, 284; and return to the East, 285; and Tongue Point flotilla, 245, 246; as Tonquin passengers, 27–29, 32, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 290. See also specific person

  Coastal Indians: at Astoria, 191, 196, 197–98, 199, 220; and Astoria paranoia, 217–18, 227; and desertions from Astoria, 219; displacement of, 300; hunting/fishing by, 199, 203–4, 206–7; intertribal trade among, 205–6; lifestyle of, 204–5, 204 n; McDougall’s relationship with, 191, 197–98; and McDougall’s smallpox threat, 218; and siting of Astoria, 188; Thorn’s trading with, 191, 290; wealth of, 203–4, 205; white traders’ relationship with, 205. See also specific person or tribe

  Coles, John, 82, 85, 89

  Colter, John, 102–6, 103 n, 111, 116

  Columbia Basin, 243, 249, 299

  Columbia River: human losses on, 287; naming of, 75; Overland Party search for headwaters of, 131, 132, 137, 183; plate tectonics and, 156; Tonquin’s attempts to cross the bar of, 67–69, 76–77, 79–90, 187; and U.S. claims to Northwest Coast, 298. See also Columbia Basin; Narrows, Columbia River

  Comcomly (Chinook Chief), 188–89, 205, 237, 263, 273, 283, 291

  Continental Divide, 50, 132, 194, 297

  Cook, James, 55, 60–62, 70–71, 72, 73, 97, 206

  Cox, Ross, 209, 213, 214, 272, 283, 308

  Crooks, Ramsay: and Arikara-Lisa-Hunt council, 119, 123; artifacts from canoe of, 146 n; at Astoria, 237, 242; background of, 106; catabolism and, 161; and Clappine death, 144–45, 223; and Crooks-Hunt Mad River meeting, 159–62, 170–71; and dangers facing Overland Party, 101, 170; death of, 305; food and supplies for, 234, 235–36; horse for, 124; Hunt’s relationship with, 178; illness of, 126, 127, 159–62, 170–71, 172, 173, 174, 177, 178, 183, 234; as member of Overland Party, 106; as missing, 223; personality and character of, 107; post-Astoria life of, 293–94, 305, 306; quits Astoria, 242, 293–94; recruitment of, 25, 305; reputation of, 305; and Return Overland Party, 245, 297, 304, 307; role in Astoria expedition of, 25, 144; and route of Overland Party, 137; with Shoshone Indians, 223, 233, 234; and splitting up of Overland Party, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 159–62, 169–74, 177, 178, 183, 233; Stuart flotilla meeting with, 233, 235, 236; trek to Astoria of, 233–36, 246, 249

  Crow Indians, 126, 129–30, 134

  Day, John, 25, 109, 144, 178, 223, 233–36, 237, 242, 245–48, 249, 308

  Devil’s Scuttle Hole: Overland Party at, 147, 153

  Dolly (Astoria schooner), 191, 192, 218, 219

  Dorion, Jean Baptiste and Paul (sons), 25, 101, 106, 107–8, 124–25, 144, 152, 153, 157, 167, 169, 171, 178, 223, 245, 285–86, 308

  Dorion, Marie: Astoria arrival of, 223; and dangers facing Overland Party, 167; death of, 299; “Great Migration” and, 299; horse of, 172; and Mad River trip, 144; as member of Overland Party, 106; and mountain trek, 157; personality and character of, 125; plains trek of, 124–25; pregnancy/baby of, 125, 152, 153, 178, 180–81, 181 n, 182; recruitment of, 25, 101, 107–8; rescue of, 285–86; role in Astoria expedition of, 25, 107–8, 125; Sacagawea and, 108, 125; and splitting up of Overland Party, 152, 169, 171, 172, 178, 180, 181; and Tongue Point flotilla, 245

  Dorion, Pierre, Jr. (Indian interpreter): and Arikara-Lisa-Hunt council, 119, 121; Astoria arrival of, 223; death of, 285, 286 n; horse of, 172; and Hunt-Shoshone negotiations, 175; as interpreter for Overland P
arty, 101, 106, 107, 125, 155; Lisa and, 107; and Mad River trip, 144; and Marie’s childbirth, 181; recruitment for Overland Party of, 107; and splitting up of Overland Party, 152, 169, 171, 172, 181; and Tongue Point flotilla, 245

  Ehninger, George, 238, 270

  Enterprise (Astor’s ship), 20, 163, 240–41

  Falkland Islands, 1, 38–39, 53–55, 56

  Farnham (clerk), 39, 228–29, 267

  Forester (Astor’s secret ship), 259–60, 265, 277, 289

  Fort William (trading post), 34, 44, 94–98, 194, 255, 258

  Fox, Mr. ( Tonquin first mate), 32, 65, 68–69, 76, 79–81, 89, 192

  Franchère, Gabriel: and Astoria council of war, 263–64; and building of Astoria, 189; and concerns about Beaver, 261; and desertions from Astoria, 219; and dissatisfaction of partners, 242; and Dorion family rescue, 286; and Falkland Islands incident, 54–55; and food and supplies at Astoria, 221; in Hawaii, 55, 56, 59, 60; and Hunt’s reaction to abandoning Astoria, 277; and Hunt’s return to Astoria, 274, 284; and MacKenzie (Donald) arrival at Astoria, 222; McDougall comments of, 291; McKay description by, 28; and mystery ship incident, 31; and paranoia at Astoria, 198; post-Astoria life of, 308; reputation of, 308; return to the East of, 285; and selling of Astoria, 282; and siting of Astoria, 188–89; Spaniard story of, 69 n; and Thompson at Astoria, 193, 195, 196; and Tonquin crossing of Columbia Bar, 68, 80, 88; and Tonquin loss, 199; as Tonquin passenger, 28, 29, 31, 36, 38; and Tonquin relationships, 28, 36, 38; and War of 1812, 253; and weather at Astoria, 220, 221, 276

  fur posts: for Canadian fur trade, 46; establishment/expansion of Astoria, 192–93, 196, 218–19, 228, 238–39, 243, 245–49; McDougall-McTavish agreement to split up, 271–72; and mission of Overland Party, 20; of North West Company, 243, 299. See also specific post

  fur trade: Astor’s early career in, 10–15; Astor’s potential profits from, 241; and Astor’s vision for Astoria, 20–21, 163; Astor’s wealth and, 301; British regulation of, 35; characteristics of American, 35, 47–48; with China, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 206; cultural and economic differences and, 33–35; expansion of, 13–15; and explorations of Northwest Coast, 14–15; hierarchy in Canadian, 44–45; Mackenzie’s (Donald) views about, 254–57; Native Americans and, 34, 35; as source of wealth, 12–13; violence in, 74–75; voyageurs and, 34, 45, 46–47. See also Russian fur traders; Scottish fur traders; specific person or Indian tribe