The Anatomy of Violence

by Adrian Raine

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  53. Ibid.

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  61. Yang, Y. & Raine, A. (2009). Prefrontal structural and functional brain imaging findings in antisocial, violent, and psychopathic individuals: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 174, 81–88.

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  63. Ibid.

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  71. Bodensteiner, J. & Schaefer, G. (1997). Dementia pugilistica and cavum septi pellucidi: Born to box. Sports Medicine 24, 361–65.

  72. Yang, Y., Raine, A., Karr, K. L., Colletti, P. & Toga, A. (2009). Localization of deformations within the amygdala in individuals with psychopathy. Archives of General Psychiatry 66, 986–94.

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  74. Ibid.

  75. Raine, A., Ishikawa, S. S., Arce, E., Lencz, T., Knuth, K. H., et al. (2004). Hippocampal structural asymmetry in unsuccessful psychopaths. Biological Psychiatry 55, 185–91. It should be noted that this structural abnormality was specific to unsuccessful or caught psychopaths—it was not observed for successful psychopaths, who seem to lack the classical brain abnormalities found in their unsuccessful counterparts.

  76. Raine, A., Buchsbaum, M. & LaCasse, L. (1997). Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Biological Psychiatry 42, 495–508.

  77. Verstynen, T., Tierney, R., Urbanski, T. & Tang, A. (2001). Neonatal novelty exposure modulates hippocampal volumetric asymmetry in the rat. NeuroReport: For Rapid Communication of Neuroscience Research 12, 3019–22.

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  79. Laakso, M. P., Vaurio, O., Koivisto, E., Savolainen, L., Eronen, M., et al. (2001). Psychopathy and the posterior hippocampus. Behavioural Brain Research 118, 187–93.

  80. Boccardi, M., Ganzola, R., Rossi, R., Sabattoli, F., Laakso, M. P., et al. (2010). Abnormal hippocampal shape in offenders with psychopathy. Human Brain Mapping 31, 438–47.

  81. Yang, Y. L., Raine, A., Han, C. B., Schug, R. A., Toga, A. W. & Narr, K. L. (2010). Reduced hippocampal and parahippocampal volumes in murderers with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 182, 9–13. It should be noted that these volume reductions in Chinese murderers were specific to those who also presented with schizophrenia.

  82. LeDoux, J. (1996). The Emotional Brain. New York: Simon and Schuster.

  83. Swanson, L. W. (1999). Limbic system. In G. Adelman & B. H. Smith (eds.), Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, pp. 1053–55. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

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  86. Gorenstein, E. E. & Newman, J. P. (1980). Disinhibitory psychopathy—A new perspective and a model for research. Psychological Review 87, 301–15.

  87. The dichotic listening task is a neuropsychological measure that presents consonant-vowel stimuli (“da,” “ba”) simultaneously to both left and right ears. Subjects who are more left-hemisphere dominant for language report more words from the right ear. Those less lateralized for language, who have language more equally represented in both hemispheres, show a reduction in this right-ear advantage.

  88. Hare, R. D. & McPherson, L. M. (1984). Psychopathy and perceptual asymmetry during verbal dichotic listening. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 93, 141–49.

  89. Raine, A., O’Brien, M., Smiley, N., Scerbo, A. & Chen, C. J. (1990). Reduced lateralization in verbal dichotic listening in adolescent psychopaths. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 99, 272–77.

  90. Scerbo, A., Raine, A., O’Brien, M., Chan, C. J., Rhee, C. & Smiley, N. (1990). Reward dominance and passive avoidance learning in adolescent psychopaths. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 18, 451–63.

  91. Quay, H. C. (1988). The behavioral reward and inhibition system in childhood behavior disorders. In L. M. Bloomingdale (ed.), Attention Deficit Disorder, vol. 3, pp. 176–86. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

  92. Scerbo et al. Reward dominance and passive avoidance learning in adolescent psychopaths.

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  103. Ekman, P. & O’Sullivan, M. (1991). Who can catch a liar? American Psychologist 46, 913–20.

  104. Porter, S., Woodworth, M. & Birt, A. R. (2000). Truth, lies, and videotape: An investigation of the ability of federal parole officers to detect deception. Law and Human Behavior 24, 643–58.

  105. DePaulo, B. M., Stone, J. L. & Lassiter, G. D. (1985). Deceiving and Detecting Deceit. In B. R. Schenkler (ed.), The Self and Social Life, pp. 323–70. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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  107. Ibid.

  108. Yang, Y. L ., Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., Lacasse, L., et al. (2005). Prefrontal structural abnormalities in liars. British Journal of Psychiatry 187, 320–25.

  109. Yang, Y., Raine, A., Narr, K., Lencz, T., Lacasse, L., Colletti, P. & Toga, A. W. (2007). Localization of increased prefrontal white matter in pathological liars. British Journal of Psychiatry 190, 174–75.

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  114. Yang, Y., Raine, A., Narr, K., Lencz, T., Lacasse, L., et al. (2007). Localization of increased prefrontal white matter in pathological liars. British Journal of Psychiatry 190, 174–75.

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  116. Maguire, E. A., Gadian, D. G., Johnsrude, I. S., Good, C. D., Ashburner, J., et al. (2000). Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 97, 4398–4403.

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  121. Sutherland, E. H. (1949). White Collar Crime. New York: Rinehart and Winston.

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  123. Weisburd, D., Waring, E. & Chayet, E. J. (2001). White Collar Crime and Criminal Careers. New York: Cambridge University Press.

  124. Raine, A., Laufer, W. S., Yang, Y., Narr, K. L. & Toga, A. W. (2012). Increased executive functioning, attention, and cortical thickness in white-collar criminals. Human Brain Mapping, 33, 2932–40.

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  127. Raine & Yang, Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior.

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  131. Kringelbach, M. L. & Rolls, E. T. (2004). The functional neuroanatomy of the human orbitofrontal cortex: Evidence from neuroimaging and neuropsychology. Progress in Neurobiology 72, 341–72.

  132. Ibid.

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  137. Damasio, Descartes’ Error.

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  6. NATURAL-BORN KILLERS

  1. Jonnes, B. (1992). Voices from an Evil God, pp. 38–39. London: Blake.

  2. It should be noted that while Sutcliffe believed his victims were prostitutes, not all of them were, including one of his first attacks.

  3. This is not to say that we don’t sorely need more good studies on the basic scientific question of what the genetic and biological correlates of violence are. There are many more questions to be answered on the neurobiology of violence. Nevertheless, we need to move away from the unproductive debates over whether there is a biological basis to violence. We need to take what knowledge we have and begin to understand the early factors in infancy, childhood, and adolescence that give rise to these biological risk factors.

  4. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States is a government agency that focuses on health promotion and disease prevention. It is one of the main components of the Department of Health and Human Services in the United States: http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/index.html.