The Anatomy of Violence

by Adrian Raine

  70. Wright, J. P., Dietrich, K. N., Ris, M. D., Hornung, R. W., Wessel, S. D., et al. (2008). Association of prenatal and childhood blood lead concentrations with criminal arrests in early adulthood. PLOS Medicine 5, 732–40.

  71. These findings on early lead exposure and adult crime applied to women as well as men, with careful control for potential confounds such as maternal smoking, alcohol use, and drug use in addition to the usual social suspects such as low income.

  72. Wright, J. P. et al. (2008). Association of prenatal and childhood blood lead concentrations with criminal arrests in early adulthood.

  73. Wasserman, G., Staghezza-Jaramillo, B., Shrout, P., Popovac, D. & Graziano, J. (1998). The effect of lead exposure on behavior problems in preschool children. American Journal of Public Health 88, 481–86.

  74. Chen, A., Cai, B., Dietrich, K. N., Radcliffe, J. & Rogan, W. J. (2007). Lead exposure, IQ, and behavior in urban 5- to 7-year-olds: Does lead affect behavior only by lowering IQ? Pediatrics 119, 650–58.

  75. Nevin, R. (2000). How lead exposure relates to temporal changes in IQ, violent crime, and unwed pregnancy. Environmental Research, 83, 1–22.

  76. Nevin, R. (2007). Understanding international crime trends: The legacy of preschool lead exposure. Environmental Research, 104, 315–36.

  77. Reyes, J. W. (2007). Environmental policy as social policy? The impact of childhood lead exposure on crime. BE Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, 7, Issue 1, Article 51, 1–41.

  78. Mielke, H. W. & Zahran, S. (2012). The urban rise and fall of air lead (Pb) and the latent surge and retreat of societal violence. Environment International, 43, 48–55.

  79. Drum, K. (2013). America’s real criminal element: Lead. Mother Jones. January/February issue. http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2013/01/lead-crime-link-gasoline.

  80. San Ysidro McDonald’s Massacre: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Ysidro_McDonald’s_massacre.

  81. Wilson, J. (1998). Science: The chemistry of violence. Popular Mechanics, April, 42–43.

  82. Ibid.

  83. Gottschalk, L. A., Rebello, T., Buchsbaum, M. S. & Tucker, H. G. (1991). Abnormalities in hair trace elements as indicators of aberrant behavior. Comprehensive Psychiatry 32, 229–37.

  84. Masters, R. D., Hone, B. & Doshi, A. (1998). Environmental pollution, neurotoxicity, and criminal violence. In J. Rose (ed.), Environmental Toxicology: Current Developments, pp. 13–48. New York: Gordon and Breach.

  85. Masters, R. D. & Coplan, M. (1999). A dynamic, multifactorial model of alcohol, drug abuse, and crime: Linking neuroscience and behavior to toxicology. Social Science Information 38, 591–624.

  86. Pihl, R. O. & Ervin, F. (1990). Lead and cadmium in violent criminals. Psychological Reports 66, 839–44.

  87. Marlowe, M., Cossairt, A., Moon, C., Errera, J., MacNeel, A., et al. (1985). Main and interaction effects of metallic toxins on classroom behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 13, 185–98.

  88. Bao, Q. S., Lu, C. Y., Song, H., Wang, M., Ling, W., et al. (2009). Behavioural development of school-aged children who live around a multi-metal sulphide mine in Guangdong province, China: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 9, 1–8.

  89. Absorption of cadmium from the lungs is much more efficient—five times better—than absorption by the gut, which also helps explain why smokers have such high cadmium levels compared with nonsmokers, even when both groups have the same food intake.

  90. Jarup, L. (2003). Hazards of heavy metal contamination. British Medical Bulletin 68, 167–82.

  91. Hubbs-Tait, L., Nation, J. R., Krebs, N. F. & Bellinger, D. C. (2005). Neurotoxicants, micronutrients, and social environments: Individual and combined effects on children’s development. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 6, 57–121.

  92. Van Assche, F. J. (1998). A Stepwise Model to Quantify the Relative Contribution of Different Environmental Sources to Human Cadmium Exposure. Paper presented at NiCad ’98, Prague, Czech Republic, September 21–22.

  93. Flanagan, P. R., McLellan, J. S., Haist, J., Cherian, M. G., Chamberlain, M. J., et al. (1978). Increased dietary cadmium absorption in mice and human subjects with iron deficiency. Gastroenterology 74, 841–46.

  94. Blum, D. (1995). Manganese an evil player in criminal urges, experts say. The Sacramento Bee, November 27, p. 1.

  95. Gottschalk, et al., Abnormalities in hair trace elements as indicators of aberrant behavior.

  96. Masters, R., Way, B., Hone, B., Grelotti, D., Gonzalez, D., et al. (1998). Neurotoxicity and violence. Vermont Law Review 22, 358–82.

  97. Finlay, J. W. (2007). Does environmental exposure to manganese pose a health risk to healthy adults? Nutrition Reviews 62, 148–53.

  98. Ericson, J., Crinella, F., Clarke-Stewart, K. A., Allhusen, V., Chan, T., et al. (2007). Prenatal manganese levels linked to childhood behavioral disinhibition. Neurotoxicology and Teratology 29, 181–87.

  99. Finley, J. W. (1999). Manganese absorption and retention by young women is associated with serum ferritin concentration. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70, 37–43.

  100. Zhang, G., Liu, D. & He, P. (1995). Effects of manganese on learning abilities in school children. Zhonghua Yufang Yixue Zazhi 29, 156–58.

  101. Bowler, R. M., Mergler, D., Sassine, M. P., Laribbe, F. & Kudnell, K. (1999). Neuropsychiatric effects of manganese on mood. Neurotoxicology 20, 367–78.

  102. Ibid.

  103. Hubbs-Tait et al., Neurotoxicants, micronutrients, and social environments.

  104. Grandjean, P., Weihe, P., White, R. F., Debes, F., Araki, S., et al. (1997). Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children with prenatal exposure to methylmercury. Neurotoxicology and Teratology 19, 417–28.

  105. Myers, G. J., Davidson, P. W., Cox, C., Shamlaye, C. F., Palumbo, D., et al. (2003). Prenatal methylmercury exposure from ocean fish consumption in the Seychelles child development study. Lancet 361, 1686–92.

  106. Justin, H. G. & Williams, L. R. (2007). Consequences of prenatal toxin exposure for mental health in children and adolescents: A systematic review. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 16, 243–53.

  107. Laing, R. D. & Esterson, A. (1970). Sanity, Madness, and the Family: Families of Schizophrenics. Oxford: Pelican.

  108. Reiss, A. J. & Roth, J. A. (eds.). Understanding and Preventing Violence. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

  109. Raine, A. (2002). Annotation: The role of prefrontal deficits, low autonomic arousal, and early health factors in the development of antisocial and aggressive behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 43, 417–34.

  110. Brennan, P. A. & Alden, A. (2005). Schizophrenia and violence: The overlap. In A. Raine (ed.), Crime and Schizophrenia: Causes and Cures, pp. 15–28. New York: Nova Science Publishers.

  111. Torrey, E. F. (2011). Stigma and violence: Isn’t it time to connect the dots? Schizophrenia Bulletin 37, 892–96.

  112. Fazel, S., Gulati, G., Linsell, L., Geddes, J. R. & Grann, M. (2009). Schizophrenia and violence: Systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS Medicine 6, 1–15.

  113. Cannon, T. D. & Raine, A. (2006). Neuroanatomical and genetic influences on schizophrenia and crime: The schizophrenia-crime association. In Raine, Crime and Schizophrenia, pp. 219–46.

  114. Raine, A. (2006). Schizotypal personality: Neurodevelopmental and psychosocial trajectories. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 2, 291–326.

  115. Raine, A. (1991). The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ): A measure of schizotypal personality based on DSM-III-R criteria. Schizophrenia Bulletin 17, 555–64.

  116. Ibid.

  117. Siever, L. J. & Davis, K. L. (2004). The pathophysiology of schizophrenia disorders: Perspectives from the spectrum. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 398–413.

  118. Wahlund, K. & Kristiansson, M. (2009). Aggression, psychopathy and brain imaging: Review and future recommendations. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 32, 266–71.

  119. Cannon & Raine, Neuroanatomical a
nd genetic influences on schizophrenia and crime, pp. 219–46.

  120. Raine, A., Fung, A. L. & Lam, B.Y.H. (2011). Peer victimization partially mediates the schizotypy—aggression relationship in children and adolescents. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37, 937–45.

  121. Norris, J. (1988). Serial Killers. New York: Anchor Books.

  122. Leonard Lake: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Lake.

  123. The name of the location is ominous—Calaveras is the Spanish word for skulls, and over forty-five pounds of bones were eventually excavated at Lake’s hideout, the remains of many of his victims.

  124. Henry, J. D., Bailey, P. E., Rendell, P. G. (2008). Empathy, social functioning and schizotypy. Psychiatry Research 160, 15–22.

  125. Norris, Serial Killers, p. 152.

  126. Suhr, J. A., Spitznagel, M. B. & Gunstad, J. (2006). An obsessive-compulsive subtype of schizotypy: Evidence from a nonclinical sample. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 194, 884–86.

  127. Fenton, W. S., McGlashan, T. H., Victor, B. J., et al. (1997). Symptoms, subtype, and suicidality in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 154, 199–204.

  128. Raine, Crime and Schizophrenia.

  129. Torrey, Stigma and violence.

  8. THE BIOSOCIAL JIGSAW PUZZLE

  1. Norris, J. (1988). Serial Killers. New York: Anchor Books.

  2. Jones, R. G. (1992). Lambs to the Slaughter. London: BCA.

  3. Norris, Serial Killers.

  4. Ibid.

  5. Jones, Lambs to the Slaughter.

  6. Berry-Dee, C. (2003). Talking with Serial Killers. London: John Blake.

  7. Hare, R. D. (1965). Acquisition and generalization of a conditioned-fear response in psychopathic and non-psychopathic criminals. Journal of Psychology 59, 367–70; Hare, R. D. (1970). Psychopathy: Theory and Practice. New York: Wiley.

  8. Raine, A. & Venables, P. H. (1981). Classical conditioning and socialization—a biosocial interaction. Personality & Individual Differences 2, 273–83; Raine, A. & Venables, P. H. (1984). Tonic heart rate level, social class and antisocial behaviour in adolescents. Biological Psychology 18, 123–32.

  9. Rafter, N. H. (2006). H. J. Eysenck in Fagin’s kitchen: The return to biological theory in 20th-century criminology. History of the Human Sciences 19, 37–56.

  10. Raine, A., Brennan, P. & Mednick, S. A. (1994). Birth complications combined with early maternal rejection at age 1 year predispose to violent crime at age 18 years. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 984–88.

  11. Raine, A. (2002). Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults: A review. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 30, 311–26.

  12. Mednick, S. A. & Kandel, E. (1988). Genetic and perinatal factors in violence. In S. A. Mednick & T. Moffitt (eds.), Biological Contributions to Crime Causation, pp. 121–34. Dordrecht, Holland: Martinus Nijhoff.

  13. Pine, D. S., Shaffer, D., Schonfeld, I. S. & Davies, M. (1997). Minor physical anomalies: Modifiers of environmental risks for psychiatric impairment? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 36, 395–403.

  14. Norris, Serial Killers.

  15. Rose, D. (2000). The Big Eddy Club: The Stocking Stranglings and Southern Justice. New York: The New Press.

  16. Jordan, B. L. (2000). Murder in the Peach State. Atlanta: Midtown Publishing Corp.

  17. Norris, Serial Killers.

  18. Bowlby, J. (1946). Forty-four Juvenile Thieves: Their Characters and Home-Life. London: Tindall and Cox.

  19. Norris, Serial Killers, p. 131.

  20. Raine, A., Brennan, P., Mednick, B. & Mednick, S. A. (1996). High rates of violence, crime, academic problems, and behavioral problems in males with both early neuromotor deficits and unstable family environments. Archives of General Psychiatry 53, 544–49.

  21. While cluster analysis does not exactly carve nature at its joints, it statistically seeks out naturally occurring homogenous subgroups within a population on the basis of social and neurological risk factors in order to identify naturally occurring discrete groups. The emergence of a biosocial group with a combination of social and biological risk confirms the presence within the general population of a biosocial “at risk” group.

  22. The biosocial group was specifically characterized by neurological problems, parental crime, family instability, marital conflict, and maternal rejection of the child.

  23. Raine, A., Brennan, P., Mednick, B. & Mednick, S. A. (1996). High rates of violence, crime, academic problems, and behavioral problems in males with both early neuromotor deficits and unstable family environments. Archives of General Psychiatry 53, 544–49.

  24. Brennan, P. A., Hall, J., Bor, W., Najman, J. M. & Williams, G. (2003). Integrating biological and social processes in relation to early-onset persistent aggression in boys and girls. Developmental Psychology 39, 309–23.

  25. Räsänen, P., Hakko, H., Isohanni, M., Hodgins, S., Järvelin, M. R., et al. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and risk of criminal behavior among adult male offspring in the northern Finland 1966 birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 857–62.

  26. Brennan, P. A., Grekin, E. R. & Mednick, S. A. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and adult male criminal outcomes. Archives of General Psychiatry 56, 215–19.

  27. Gibson, C. L. & Tibbetts, S. G. (2000). A biosocial interaction in predicting early onset of offending. Psychological Reports 86, 509–18.

  28. Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T., Mill, J., Martin, J., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297, 851–54.

  29. Farrington, D. P. (1997). The relationship between low resting heart rate and violence. In A. Raine, P. A. Brennan, D. Farrington & S. A. Mednick (eds.), Biosocial Bases of Violence, pp. 89–105. New York: Plenum.

  30. Raine, A., Park, S., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., LaCasse, L., et al. (2001). Reduced right hemisphere activation in severely abused violent offenders during a working memory task: An fMRI study. Aggressive Behavior 27, 111–29.

  31. Rowe, R., Maughan, B., Worthman, C. M., Costello, E. J. & Angold, A. (2004). Testosterone, antisocial behavior, and social dominance in boys: Pubertal development and biosocial interaction. Biological Psychiatry 55, 546–52.

  32. Feinberg, M. E., Button, T.M.M., Neiderhiser, J. M., Reiss, D. & Hetherington, E. M. (2007). Parenting and adolescent antisocial behavior and depression: Evidence of genotype x parenting environment interaction. Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 457–65.

  33. Eysenck, H. J. (1977). Crime and Personality, 3rd ed. St. Albans, England: Paladin.

  34. Ibid.

  35. Here “good home” is a relative term, and was defined in my early fear-conditioning study as children from high social classes.

  36. Rafter, H. J. Eysenck in Fagin’s kitchen.

  37. Other international scholars in addition to Hans Eysenck who should be acknowledged as having shaped a biosocial perspective on crime in the 1970s include Sarnoff Mednick (United States), Karl Christiansen (Denmark), Michael Wadsworth (England), and David Farrington (England). As discussed in the chapter on genetic influences, Avshalom Caspi and Terrie Moffitt took this perspective much further in their far-reaching work on the interaction between severe child abuse and the genotype conferring low levels of MAOA in predisposing to offending. Eysenck himself was half a century ahead of his time in suggesting a biosocial approach to crime, for it is only now that this approach is beginning to be embraced by a wider scientific community.

  38. Raine, Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults.

  39. Raine, A., Buchsbaum, M. & LaCasse, L. (1997). Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Biological Psychiatry 42, 495–508.

  40. Raine, A., Stoddard, J., Bihrle, S. & Buchsbaum, M. (1998). Prefrontal glucose deficits in murderers lacking psychosocial deprivation. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology & Behavioral Neurology 11, 1–7.

 
41. Damasio, A. R., Tranel, D. & Damasio, H. (1990). Individuals with sociopathic behavior caused by frontal damage fail to respond autonomically to social stimuli. Behavioural Brain Research 41, 81–94.

  42. Miller, M. (2010). Inside the mind of a serial killer: Interview with Michael Stone. July 27. http://bigthink.com/ideas/21782.

  43. Raine, Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults.

  44. Mednick, S. A. (1977). A bio-social theory of the learning of law-abiding behavior. In S. A. Mednick & K. O. Christiansen (eds.), Biosocial Bases of Criminal Behavior. New York: Gardner Press.

  45. Raine, A. & Venables, P. H. (1981). Classical conditioning and socialization—a biosocial interaction. Personality & Individual Differences 2, 273–83.

  46. Raine, Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults.

  47. Raine, A. & Venables, P. H. (1984). Electrodermal nonresponding, antisocial behavior, and schizoid tendencies in adolescents. Psychophysiology 21, 424–33.

  48. Maliphant, R., Hume, F. & Furnham, A. (1990). Autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity, personality characteristics, and disruptive behaviour in girls. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines 31, 619–28.

  49. Wadsworth, M.E.J. (1976). Delinquency, pulse rate and early emotional deprivation. British Journal of Criminology 16, 245–56.

  50. Hemming, J. H. (1981). Electrodermal indices in a selected prison sample and students. Personality & Individual Differences 2, 37–46.

  51. Buikhuisen, W., Bontekoe, E. H., Plas-Korenhoff, C. & Van Buuren, S. (1984). Characteristics of criminals: The privileged offender. International Journal of Law & Psychiatry 7, 301–13.

  52. Raine, A., Reynolds, C., Venables, P. H. & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Biosocial bases of aggressive behavior in childhood: Resting heart rate, skin conductance orienting and physique. In A. Raine, P. A. Brennan, D. Farrington & S. Mednick (eds.), Biosocial Bases of Violence, pp. 107–260. New York: Plenum.

  53. Raine, A. (1987). Effect of early environment on electrodermal and cognitive correlates of schizotypy and psychopathy in criminals. International Journal of Psychophysiology 4, 277–87.