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13. Ibid.
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16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
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20. Matousek, M. & Petersen, P. (1973). Frequency analysis of the EEG in normal children and adolescents. In P. Kellaway & I. Petersen (eds.), Automation of Clinical Encephalography, pp. 75–101. New York: Raven Press.
21. Raine et al., Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality.
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23. Raine et al., Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality.
24. The p value for the difference in court convictions between the children in the enriched group compared with controls was .07, and employed a two-tailed test. We elected to be conservative, but given the a priori prediction that crime would be reduced (and not increased) by the intervention we could have argued for the use of a one-tailed test of significance, and thus the results would have been significant at p < .035.
25. Raine et al., Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality.
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37. Berlin, F. S. (2005). Commentary: The impact of surgical castration on sexual recidivism risk among civilly committed sexual offenders. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 33, 37–41.
38. Lösel, F. & Schmucker, M. (2005). The effectiveness of treatment for sexual offenders: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Journal of Experimental Criminology 1, 117–46.
39. Reuters (2009). Poland okays forcible castration for pedophiles. September 25. http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/25/us-castration-idUSTRE58O4LE20090925.
40. Poland to castrate sex offenders. (2008). Belfast Telegraph, September 26. http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/world-news/poland-to-castrate-sex-offenders-13985385.html.
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43. A child sex offender in Wisconsin’s Penal Code 302.11 is defined as someone having intercourse with a child under the age of thirteen.
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45. The Adventures of Tintin. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Tintin.
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47. Jensen, P. S., Youngstrom, E. A., Steiner, H., Findling, R. L., Meyer, R. E., et al. (2007). Consensus report on impulsive aggression as a symptom across diagnostic categories in child psychiatry: Implications for medication studies. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 46, 309–22.
48. Pappadopulos, E., Woolston, S., Chait, A., Perkins, M., Connor, D. F. & Jensen, P. S. (2006). Pharmacotherapy of aggression in children and adolescents: Efficacy and effect size. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 15, 27–39.
49. The effect size quoted here for pharmacological treatment effects are Cohen’s d.
50. “Atypical antipsychotic
s” is the more formal term used to describe “newer generation” antipsychotics. While originally developed for the treatment of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar depression, over the past fifteen years they have been increasingly used to treat childhood aggression. Examples of atypicals would be risperidone and olanzapine. Their advantage, relative to their efficacy, is that atypical antipsychotics do not have the more severe side effects of more traditional antipsychotic medications such as tardive dyskinesia. Nevertheless they do have some side effects, including weight gain.
51. Effect sizes reported in this review of psychopharmacology of aggression are Cohen’s d.
52. Connor, D. F., Glatt, S. J., Lopez, I. D., Jackson, D. & Melloni, R. H. (2002). Psychopharmacology and aggression, vol. 1, A meta-analysis of stimulant effects on overt/covert aggression-related behaviors in ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 41, 253–61.
53. Connor, D. F., Carlson, G. A., Chang, K. D., Daniolos, P. T., Ferziger, R., et al. (2006). Juvenile maladaptive aggression: A review of prevention, treatment, and service configuration and a proposed research agenda. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 67, 808–20.
54. Lopez-Larson, M. & Frazier, J. A. (2006). Empirical evidence for the use of lithium and anticonvulsants in children with psychiatric disorders. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 14, 285–304.
55. Soller, M. V., Karnik, N. S. & Steiner, H. (2006). Psychopharmacologic treatment in juvenile offenders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 15, 477–99.
56. Connor, D. F., Boone, R. T., Steingard, R. J., Lopez, I. D. & Melloni, R. H. (2003). Psychopharmacology and aggression, vol. 2: A meta-analysis of nonstimulant medication effects on overt aggression-related behaviors in youth with SED. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 11, 157–68.
57. Connor et al., Juvenile maladaptive aggression; Pappadopulos et al., Pharmacotherapy of aggression in children and adolescents; Jensen et al., Consensus report on impulsive aggression as a symptom across diagnostic categories in child psychiatry.
58. Maughan, D. R., Christiansen, E., Jenson, W. R. & Clark, E. (2005). Behavioral parent training as a treatment for externalizing behaviors and disruptive behavior disorders: A meta-analysis. School Psychology Review 34, 267–86.
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62. Staller, J. A. (2007). Psychopharmacologic treatment of aggressive preschoolers: A chart review. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 31, 131–35.
63. The anticonvulsants used in this community study consisted of phenytoin, carbamazepine, and valproate.
64. Stanford, M. S., Helfritz, L. E., Conklin, S. M., Villemarette-Pittman, N. R., Greve, K. W., et al. (2005). A comparison of anticonvulsants in the treatment of impulsive aggression. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 13, 72–77.
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67. Ibid., p. 150.
68. Raine, A. & Mahoomed, T. (2012). A Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Trial of Omega-3 on Aggression and Delinquency. Paper presentation, the Stockholm Symposium, Stockholm, Sweden, June 13.
69. Hibbeln, J. (2012). Personal communication. Philadelphia, April 12.
70. Food for court: Diet and crime. (2005). Magistrate 61, 5.
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73. Clayton, E. H., Hanstock, T. L., Hirneth, S. J., Kable, C. J., Garg, M. L., et al. (2009). Reduced mania and depression in juvenile bipolar disorder associated with long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63, 1037–40.
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75. Hamazaki, T., Sawazaki, S., Itomura, M., Asaoka, E., Nagao, Y., et al. (1996). The effect of docosahexaenoic acid on aggression in young adults: A placebo-controlled double-blind study. Journal of Clinical Investigation 97, 1129–33.
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78. Zanarini, M. C. & Frankenburg, F. R. (2003). Omega-3 fatty acid treatment of women with borderline personality disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 167.
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82. Not all studies have found that omega-3 supplementation reduces antisocial behavior; see, for example: Hirayama, S., Hamazaki, T. & Terasawa, K. (2004). Effect of docosahexaenoic acid-containing food administration on symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A placebo-controlled double-blind study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58, 467–73. Another study failed to find effects in English schoolchildren: Kirby, A., Woodward, A., Jackson, S., Wang, Y. & Crawford, M. (2010). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study investigating the effects of omega-3 supplementation in children aged 8–10 years from a mainstream school population. Research in Developmental Disabilities 31, 718–30. Nevertheless, some studies with statistically nonsignificant findings still find a 29 percent reduction in aggression. See, for example: Hallahan, B., Hibbeln, J. R., Davis, J. M. & Garland, M. R. (2007). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in patients with recurrent self-harm: Single-centre double-blind randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry 190, 118–22.
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