by Edwin Black
Some who speak of human cloning speak of mass replication of a perfected species. That is nothing less than a return to the campaign to create a master race-but now aided by computers, digital communications and a globalized commercial infrastructure to accelerate the process. Some of America’s leading thinkers on genetic evolution believe that within a few hundred years, the world will indeed be divided into the “genetically endowed”-or “GenRich” as some call them-and those who will serve them, almost like the worker bees Davenport envisioned.44 Advocates of the genetic divide encourage it as a matter of personal choice, and argue that the same man who purchases eyeglasses, tutors his child or seeks medical attention to conquer his biological limitations is destined to take the next step and achieve genetic superiority. This is not the philosophy as much as the raison d’etre of newgenics.
It will transform the human species as we know it. Transgenic creatures-created from two or more species-are now commonplace. Genomic engineers have implanted a human embryo in a cow. In British Columbia, fish hatcheries have engineered an oversized salmon dubbed “Frankenfish” that is more profitable to raise. Geneticists have inserted the jellyfish’s gene for luminescence into rhesus monkey DNA, creating a monkey that glows in the dark; the creature was named ANDi for “inserted DNA” in reverse. No one can successfully legislate or regulate experimentation on monkeys. In the suburbs of Washington, D.C., J. Craig Venter, one of the scientists who led the efforts to map the human genome, has announced plans to create a new form of bacterial life to aid in hydrogen energy production.45
Bioethicists are of little help in this hurtling new world. The still emerging field of bioethics includes self-ordained experts who grant interviews to television talk shows and newspapers even as they consult as scientific advisors to the very corporations under question. The do’s and don’ts of genetic tinkering are being revised almost daily as the technology breeds an ever-evolving crop of moral, legal and social challenges that virtually redefine life itself.
It will take a global consensus to legislate against genetic abuse because no single country’s law can by itself anticipate the evolving inter-collaborative nature of global genomics. Only one precept can prevent the dream of twentieth-century eugenics from finding fulfillment in twenty-first-century genetic engineering: no matter how far or how fast the science develops, nothing should be done anywhere by anyone to exclude, infringe, repress or harm an individual based on his or her genetic makeup. Only then can humankind be assured that there will be no new war against the weak.
Notes
CHAPTER ONE
1. See Jill Durance and William Shamblin, ed., Appalachian Ways (Washington D.C.: The Appalachian Regional Commission, 1976), pp. 8-9,18-19,24,32,79-80. Also see Carolyn and Jack Reeder, Shenandoah Heritage: The Story of the People Before the Park (Washington D.C.: The Potomac Appalachian Trail Club, 1978).
2. “Welfare Cause For Sterilization,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 6 April 1980.
3. “Welfare Cause For Sterilization,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 6 April 1980.
4. Charles B. Davenport, Heredity In Relation To Eugenics, p. 257-258; see Bleecker Van Wagenen, chairman, Preliminary Report of the Committee of the Eugenic Section of the American Breeders' Association to Study and to Report on the Best Practical Means for Cutting Off the Defective Germ-Plasm in the Human Population (ABA), p. 4; also see Paul Popenoe and Roswell Hill Johnson, Applied Eugenics, rev. ed. (New York: Macmillan Company, 1935), p. 396-397 as compared to Frederick Osborn, Preface to Eugenics (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1940) p. 14; also see J. David Smith, Minds Made Feeble: The Myth and Legacy of the Kallikaks (Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems Corporation, 1985) p. 21-36, 83-114.
5. The Lynchburg Story, dir. Stephen Trombley, prod. Bruce Eadie, Worldview Pictures, 1993, videocassette. Poe v. Lynchburg Training School and Hospital, 518 F. Supp. 789 (W.D. Va. 1981).
6. “Welfare Cause For Sterilization,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 6 April 1980.
7. “Welfare Cause For Sterilization,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 6 April 1980.
8. “Patient ‘Assembly Line’ Recalled By Sterilized Man,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 24 February 1980.
9. “Patient ‘Assembly Line’ Recalled By Sterilized Man,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 24 February 1980.
10. “Patient ‘Assembly Line’ Recalled By Sterilized Man,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 24 February 1980.
11. “Patient ‘Assembly Line’ Recalled By Sterilized Man,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 24 February 1980.
12. “Patient ‘Assembly Line’ Recalled By Sterilized Man,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 24 February 1980.
13. The Lynchburg Story.
14. The Lynchburg Story.
15. The Lynchburg Story.
16. The Lynchburg Story.
17. See Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1926) p . xxix-xxxi, p. 306-308.
18. “Delegates Urge Wider Practice of Sterilization,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, 16 January 1934.
19. International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg Military Tribunal, Green Book, Volume V, p. 159. See International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg Military Tribunal, Green Book, Volume IV, p. 609-617,1121-1127,1158-1159. See United Nations Resolution 95 (1), “Affirmation of the Principles of International Law Recognized by the Chaner of the Nürnberg Tribunal.” United Nations Archives. See United Nations Resolution 96 (1), “The Crime of Genocide.” United Nations Archives. See Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide,” at www.unhchr.ch.
CHAPTER TWO
1. Code of Hammurabi, trans. L. W. King, item #48 at www.wsu.edu.
2. See Henry Hazlitt, The Conquest of Poverty (New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, 1973), Chapter 6.
3. Deuteronomy 15: 11 NlV Study Bible.
4. Luke 7:22; Matthew 10:6-8,11:4. Matthew 5:5.
5. Catholic Encyclopedia, 1967, s.v., “Hospital.”
6. Catholic Encyclopedia, 1967, s.v., “Orphan (In the Early Church).” English Heritage, “Hospitals,” at www.eng-h.gov.uk.
7. E. M. Leonard, The Early History of English Poor 445 Relief (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1900; London: Frank Cass & Co., 1965) pp. 3-5. Encyclopedia Judaica, s.v., “Black Death.”
8. Leonard, pp. 16-17.
9. Catholic Encyclopedia, 1967, s.v., “Henry VIII.” Paul Slack, The English Poor Law 1531-1782, (London: Macmillan Education Ltd., 1990), pp.16-17.
10. See John Bohstedt, Riots and Community Politics in England and Wales 1790-1810 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983).
11. Slack, p. 17. Hazlitt, Chapter 7. Leonard, pp. 10-11.
12. Slack, pp. 18, 25. Hazlitt, Chapter 7.
13. Charles L. Brace, “Pauperism,” North American Review 120 (1875) as cited by Elof Axel Carlson, The Unfit: A History of a Bad Idea (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2001), p. 76. Carlson, p. 77. Hazlitt, Chapter 7.
14. James Greenwood, The Seven Curses of London (London: S. Rivers and Co., 1869) Chapter XXIII.
15. Thomas R. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population, as selected by Donald Winch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992) pp. 19, 100-101, 221.
16. Charles Darwin, The Origin of the Species (New York: D . Appleton & Co., 1881), chapter 3. Herbert Spencer, Social Statics, (New York: Robert Schalkenback Foundation, reprint, 1970), pp. 58-60, 289-290,339-340.
17. Darwin, The Origin of the Species, Chapter 3.
18. See Robert C. Bannister, Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1979), p. xii. See Carlson, pp. 124. See Daniel Kevles, In The Name of Eugenics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), pp. 20-21.
19. Genesis 30: 38-42. Matthew 7: 18-19.
20. Herbert Spencer, The Principles of Biology (New York: D . Appleton and Company, 1884) Vol. I, p.183.
21. V. Kruta and V. Orel, “Johann Gregor Mendel,
” Dictionary of Scientific Biography, (New York: Scribner’s, 1970-1980), Vol. IX, p. 277-283, as cited by Kevles, p. 41. Vitezslav Orel, Gregor Mendel: The First Geneticist (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996) p.169.
22. Charles Darwin, The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (London: John Murray, 1868; reprint, New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1883), vol. 2, p. 370.
23. Francis Galton, Memories of my Life, (London: Methuen & Co., 1908), pp. 46-47, 58. Kevles, p.5.
24. Letter, Francis Galton to Samuel Galton, 5 December 1838 and Letter, Francis Galton to Samuel Galton, 10 November 1838, as cited by Kevles, p. 303, footnote 10. Copperplate prepared for Biometrika, circa 1888, at www.mugu.com.
25. Karl Pearson, The Life, Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton (Cambridge: Cambridge at the University Press, 1930), Vol. I, p. 232 . Galton, Memories of my Life, p. 315.
26. Pearson, Vol. II, p. 340.
27. Galton, Memories of my Life, pp. 232,325.
28. Francis Galton, Finger Prints (New York: Da Capo Press, 1965), p. iv.
29. Francis Galton, Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry Into Its Laws And Consequences Second Edition (London: Macmillan & Co., 1892; reprint, London: Watts & Co., 1950), p. I. “Sir Francis Galton F.R.S. 1822-1911,” at www.mugu.com.
30. Galton, Hereditary Genius, p. I. Francis Galton, Restrictions in Marriage (American Journal of Sociology, 1906), p. 50.
31. Pearson, Vol. I, p.
32. 32. Pearson, Vol. lilA, p. 348.
33. Personal scrap of paper: Galton Papers 138/1, UCL. Francis Galton, Inquiries Into Human Faculty And Its Development (London: JM Dent & Co., 1883), p. 17.
34. Personal scrap of paper.
35. Francis Galton, Natural Inheritance (London: Macmillan & Co., 1889), pp. 72-79. Francis Galton, “On The Anthropometric Laboratory at the Late International Health Exhibition,” Journal of the Anthropological lnstitute, 1884: pp. 205-206.
36. August Weismann, Essays Upon Heredity and Kindred Biological Problems (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1889), pp. 190-191.
37. Galton, Natural Inheritance (London: Macmillan, 1889), pp. 2, 192-197. Francis Galton, “Regression Towards Mediocrity in Hereditary Stature,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute (1885), p. 261. See Francis Galton, “A Diagram of Heredity,” Nature (1898).
38. Galton, Hereditary Genius, p. xviii.
39. Galton, Hereditary Genius, p. xx.
40. Francis Galton, “Index To Achievements of Near Kinsfolk of Some Of The Fellows Of The Royal Society” (Unrevised proof, 1904 papers), p. 1: UCL.
41. Pearson, vol. IIIA, p. 349.
42. Francis Galton, “Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims,” The American Journal of Sociology Vol. X, No.1 (July 1904).
43. “Notes On The Early Days Of The ‘Eugenics Education Society,’” p. 1: Wellcome Library SA/EUG/B11.
CHAPTER THREE
1. Gary B. Nash, Red, White, and Black: The Peoples of Early America (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1974), pp. 168-169, 186. See Library of Congress, Images of African-American Slavery and Freedom at www.loc.gov.
2. Daniel J. Kevles, In The Name of Eugenics, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985), p. 21. Mark H. Haller, Eugenics: Hereditarian Attitudes in American Thought (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1963), pp. 37-38.
3. Michael W. Perry, ed., The Pivot of Civilization: In Historical Perspective (Seattle, WA: Inkling Books, 2001), p. 31.
4. Israel Zangwill, “The Melting Pot: Drama in Four Acts” (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1909; reprint, 1919), pp. 215-216.
5. U.S. Department of Commerce, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, (Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1976).
6. See Paula Mitchell Marks, In a Barren Land: American Indian Dispossession and Survival (New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1998). See Carey McWilliams, North From Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States, (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), pp. 51, 112-113. See Dr. David Pilgrim, “Jim Crow: Museum of Racist Memorabilia” at www.ferris.edu. See lnunigration and Naturalization Service, Chinese Exclusion Act of May 6, 1882 (22 Statutes-at-Large 58) at www.ins.usdoj.gov. See Immigration and Naturalization Service, Act of April 29, 1902 (32 Statutes-at-Large 176) at www.ins.usdoj.gov.
7. Edward Alsworth Ross, “The Value Rank of the American People,” The Independent, pp. 57, 1063.
8. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States, 1889-1918 (New York: NAACP, 1919; reprint, New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969) pp. 7, 30-31, 45, 51, 58, 70.
9. Dr. Cecil E. Greek, Lecture Notes, The Positive School: Biological and Psychological Factors at www.criminology.fsu.edu.
10. Author’s interview with Robin Walsh, Local History Librarian with SUNY Ulster, 13 November 2002. See Alf Evers, Woodstock: History of an American Town, (Woodstock, New York: The Overlook Press, 1987).
11. Richard L. Dugdale, The Jukes (New York: Pumam, 1910), pp. 1-15. “Bad Seed or Bad Science?” New York Times, 8 February 2003. See Oscar C. McCulloch, “The Tribe of Ishmael: A Study In Social Degradation,” Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction (Boston: George H. Ellis, 1888), p. 154. See Norbert Vogel, “Die Gippe Delra,” Ziel und Weg, vol. 7 (1937), no. 4. pp. 85-88. See Dr. Daniel R. Brower, “Medical Aspects of Crime,” Journal of the American Medical Association vol. 32 (1899), p. 1283.
12. Dugdale, pp. 62, 65-66, 72. Richard L. Dugdale, “Origin of Crime in Society,” The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 48, Issue 288 (October 1881), p. 462.
13. Edward S. Morse, “Narural Selection and Crime,” Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 41 (1892), pp. 433-446, as cited by Elof Alex Carlson, The Unfit (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Press, 2001), p. 171.
14. Diane B. Paul, Controlling Human Heredity (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, Inc., 1995), p. 44. Carlson, p. 172. McCulloch, pp. 154-155. The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed., s.v. “Jackson Whites.”
15. McCulloch, pp. 154-155.
16. Vitezslav Orel, Gregor Mendel: The First Geneticist (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996) pp. 2, 256-257.
17. Orel, pp. 99,102,104-105, 120-121.
18. Orel, pp. 270-271. Carlson, p. 137.
19. Orel, pp. 283-288, 291. Caleb Saleeby, “The Discussion of Alcoholism at the Eugenics Congress,” British Journal of Inebriety, October 1912, p. 6.
20. Lener, Francis Galton to William Bateson, 8 September 1904: Galton Papers, University College London 245/3. Lener, Francis Galton to William Bateson, 12 June, 1904: Galton Papers, University College London 245/3.
21. Karl Pearson and Ethel M. Edlerton, A Second Study of the Influence of Alcoholism on the Physique and Ability of the Offspring (London: Dulau and Co., 1910) pp. 39-40.
22. Galton to Bateson, 8 September 1904. Francis Galton, Index To Achievements of Near Kinsfolk (Unrevised proof, 1904), p. iii: Galton Papers, University College London 245/3.
23. Francis Galton, Restrictions in Marriage (American Journal of Sociology, 1906), p. 3. Francis Galton, Memories of My Lift (London: Methuen & Co., 1908), p. 310.
24. Galton, Restrictions in Marriage, pp. 7, 12-13.
25. Galton, Memories, p. 322. “Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims,” The American Journal of Sociology Vol. X, No. I.
26. John Franklin Bobbitt, “Practical Eugenics,” The Pedagogical Seminary vol. XVI (1909), p. 388.
27. Bobbitt, pp. 385, 387, 391.
28. Bobbitt, p. 388. Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1936), p. 167.
29. Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1926), p. 165. Grant, p. 65.
30. Stoddard, pp. 165-166, 167.
31. Grant, pp. 19-20, 188-212.
32. Grant, pp. 29,60-64.
33. Harry H. Laughlin, secretary, Bulletin No. 10A: The Report of the Committee to Study and to Report on the Best Pract
ical Means of Cutting Off the Defective Germ-Plasm in the American Population (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor, 1914), p. 16.
34. Grant, p. 18.
35. Biography of Andrew Carnegie at www.carnegie.org. Eugenics Record Office, “Official Record of the Gift of the Eugenic Record Office” (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor), p. 3.
36. Eugenics Record Office, “Official Record of the Gift of the Eugenic Record Office,” pp. 5-6, 12.
37. See Bleecker Van Wagenen, Chairman, Preliminary Report of the Committee of the Eugenic Section of the American Breeder’s Association to Study and to Report on the Best Practical Means for Cutting Off the Defective Germ-Plasm in the Human Population, ABA. See Laughlin, Bulletin No. 10A.
38. E. Carlton MacDowell, “Charles Benedict Davenport, 1866-1944: A Study of Conflicting Influences,” BIOS vol. XVII no. I, pp. 4, 8.
39. MacDowell, p. 5.
40. MacDowell, pp. 4-7.
41. MacDowell, pp. 4-5.
42. MacDowell, p. 5.
43. MacDowell, pp. 8,10.
44. MacDowell, p. 12. Carnegie Institution of Washington Administrative Files, Biography of Charles Davenport, pp. 1-2.
45. MacDowell, pp. 19,27. See also autographed photograph, c. 1928 in March 1944 Eugenical News.
46. MacDowell, pp. 8, 14, 33. Kevles, p. 52.
47. Letter, George Macon to Charles B. Davenport, 24 June 1899: APS. Letter, C.H. Walters to Charles B. Davenport, 24 May, 1898: APS B-D27. Letter, American Net & Twine Co. to Charles B. Davenport, 27 July 1899: APS B-D27. Letter, American Net & Twine Co. to Charles B. Davenport, I August, 1899: APS B-D27. Letter, University of Minnesota to Charles B. Davenport, I September, 1898: APS B-D27.
48. Letter, Walter Rankiss to Charles B. Davenport, 6 June 1898: APS B-D27. Letter, Rudolph Hering to Charles B. Davenport, 28 March, 1898: APS B-D27. Letter, Katherine Hobach to Franklin Hooper, 16 April, 1898: APS B-D27. Letter, C.O. Townsend to Charles B. Davenport, 2 April, 1898: APS B-D27. Letter, Dudley Greene to Charles B. Davenport, 11 May, 1898: APS B-D27. Letter, C.O. Townsend to Charles B. Davenport, 14 June, 1898: APS.
