War Against the Weak

by Edwin Black

  81. Nuremberg Military Tribunal, Green Book, Volume IV, p. 1180.

  82. Nuremberg Military Tribunal, Green Book, Volume IV, pp. 1I58, 1I59.

  83. Nuremberg Military Tribunal, Green Book, Volume IV, p. 1159.

  84. Nuremberg Military Tribunal, Green Book, Volume IV, p. 1159.

  85. Nuremberg Military Tribunal, Green Book, Volume V, p. 166.

  CHAPTER TWENTY

  1. American Breeders’ Association, “Minutes,” First Annual Meeting, 1903, pp. 1-2: APS. American Breeders’ Association, “Committees and Their Specific Duties,” Annual Report, American Breeders’ Association, vol. II (1906), p. 11. E. Carlton MacDowell, “Charles Benedict Davenport, 1866-1944: A Study of Conflicting Influences,” BIOS vol. XVII no. I, pp. 23-24. American Genetic Association, “Overview,” at lsvl.la.asu.edu/aga.

  2. Robert C. Olby, “Horticulture: The Font for tbe Baptism of Genetics,” Nature Reviews Vol. 1 (October 2000), pp. 65, 68. See letter, William Bateson to Adam Sedgewick, 4 May 1905.

  3. University of Cambridge Department of Genetics, “A Brief History of tbe Department,” at www.gen.cam.ac.uk.

  4. American Genetic Association, “Overview.” Eugenics Research Association, Active Membership Accession List (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Eugenics Research Association, 1922): Truman ERA Membership Records. “College Courses in Genetics and Eugenics,” Eugenical News Vol. I (1916), pp. 26-27. See Eugenical News Vol. XV (1930) as compared to Eugenical News Vol. XIV (1929).

  5. Edmund W. Sinnott and L.C. Dunn, Principles of Genetics: An Elementary Text, with Problems (New York: McGraw-Hili, 1925), p. 406.

  6. Letter, L.c. Dunn to John C. Merriam, 3 July 1935: Truman C-2-2:2.

  7. “Report of the Committee on Human Heredity,” memorandum attached to letter, Laurence H. Snyder to Harry H. Laughlin, 27 September 1937: Truman D-2-3:21. Laurence H. Synder, “Presidential Address: Present Trends in the Study of Human Inheritance,” Eugenical News Vol. XXIII (1938), p. 61.

  8. “Report of the Committee on Human Heredity.”

  9. “Report of the Committee on Human Heredity.”

  10. Synder, p. 61.

  11. Snyder, p. 61.

  12. Tage U.H. Ellinger, “On the Breeding of Aryans,” Journal of Heredity Vol. XXXIII (April 1942), pp. 141-142.

  13. Ellinger, pp. 141-142.

  14. Ellinger, pp. 141-142.

  15. Ellinger, p. 141.

  16. Ellinger, p. 142.

  17. Ellinger, p. 142.

  18. Ellinger, p. 142.

  19. Ellinger, pp. 142-143.

  20. Ellinger, p. 143.

  21. “Eugenics After the War,” Eugenical News Vol. XXXIII (1943), p. II.

  22. “Eugenics After the War,” p. II.

  23. “Eugenics in 1952,” Eugenical News Vol. XXXIII (1943), p. 12.

  24. “Eugenics in 1952,” p. 13.

  25. “Maternity, the Family and the Future,” Eugenical News Vol. XXXIII (1943), p. 22.

  26. “Notes and News Relating to Eugenics,” Eugenical News Vol. XXIX (1944), p. 33. “Discussion: Eugenics After the War,” Eugenical News Vol. XXX (1945), p. 23.

  27. “Eugenics in England,” Eugenical News Vol. XXX (1945), pp. 34, 36.

  28. “Eugenics and Modem Life: Retrospect and Prospect,” Eugenical News Vol. XXXI (1946), p. 33.

  29. “Eugenics and Modem Life: Retrospect and Prospect,” pp. 33, 34-35.

  30. Report, Tage Kemp to the Rockefeller Foundation, 17 November 1932: RF RG 1.2 Ser 713 Box 2 Folder 15.

  31. Letter, Daniel P. O’Brien to Tage Kemp, 29 June 1934: RF RG 1.2 Ser 713 Box 2 Folder 15.

  32. O’Brien to Kemp, 29 June 1934. Tage Kemp, “To the Rockefeller Foundation: Report of Visits to Various Institutes, Laboratories etc. for Human Genetics in Europe,” circa December 1934, pp. 54-55.: RF RG 1.2 Ser 713 Box 2 Folder 16.

  33. Kemp, pp. 59-61, 62-63.

  34. Kemp, p. 57.

  35. See “University of Copenhagen — Institute of Human Genetics,” memorandum circa June 1939: RF RG 1.2 Ser 713 Box 1 Folder 15.

  36. “To The Rockefeller Foundation,” memorandum circa 1935: RFRG 1.2 Ser 713A Box 2 Folder 17. See “To the Ministry for Public Education,” memorandum circa February 1935: RF RG 1.2 Ser 713A Box 2 Folder 17.

  37. “University of Copenhagen — Institute of Human Genetics.” “To The Rockefeller Foundation.” “News and Notes Relating to Eugenics,” Eugenical News Vol. XXXII (1947), p. 30.

  38. Frederick Osborn, “History of the American Eugenics Society,” unpublished draft of 20 January 1971, p. 15: APS: AES Records-Osborn Papers #2 — History of the AES. Wake Forest University, “Centennial: Wake Forest ‘Firsts’ in Medicine,” at www.wfubmc.edu. “The Twenty-Sixth Annual Meeting of the Eugenics Research Association, June 2 1938,” Eugenical News Vol. XXIII (1938), p. 72. Manson Meads, The Miracle on Hawthorne Hill (Winston-Salem, NC: Wake Forest University, 1988), p. 32. William Allan, “The Relationship of Eugenics to Public Health,” Eugenical News Vol. XXI (1936), p. 74. See William Allan, “The Inheritance of the Shaking Palsy,” Eugenical News VoI.XX (1935), p. 72.

  39. “Forsyth in the Forefront,” Winston-Salem Journal. “Lifting the Curtain on a Shameful Era,” Winston-Salem Journal.

  40. C. Nash Herndon, “Human Resources From the Viewpoint of Medical Genetics,” Eugenical News Vol. XXXV (1950), pp. 6-8. “Lifting the Curtain On a Shameful Era.” See “Against Their Will: North Carolina’s Sterilization Program.”

  41. Osborn, “History of the American Eugenics Society,” pp. 16-17.

  42. Osborn, “History of the American Eugenics Society,” pp. 4, 17. American Philosophical Society, “Frederick Henry Osborn Papers,” at www.amphilsoc.org. “The Twenty-Sixth Annual Meeting of the Eugenics Research Association, June 2 1938.” “B. Early History and Development,” Organized Eugenics, (New Haven, CT: American Eugenics Society, 1931), p. 3.

  43. Osborn, “History of the American Eugenics Society,” p. 17.

  44. Frederick Osborn, “Population and The Progress of Civilization”, presented at Hunter College, 22 December 1959: APS: AES Records: Osborn Papers #9.

  45. Letter, Frank Lorimer to Frederick Osborn. 1 October 1959: APS: AES Records — Osborn Papers #2 — Letters on Eugenics.

  46. Frederick Osborn, “Draft Prepared for the Directors’ Meeting, April 23rd: Eugenics: Retrospect and Prospect,” draft of 26 March 1959: APS: AES Records — Osborn Papers.

  47. Letter, Bruce Wallace to Frederick Osborn, 11 April 1961: APS: AES Records — Osborn Papers #2 — Letters on Eugerucs.

  48. Letter, Sheldon C. Reed to Harry L. Shapiro, 15 May 1961: APS: AES Records.

  49. Letter, Frederick Osborn to P.S. Barrows, 25 August 1965: APS: AES Records — Osborn Papers #2 — Letters on Eugenics. Letter, Frederick Osborn to Frank Lorimer, 17 September 1959: APS. Letter, Gordon Allen to Frederick Osborn, 23 May 1961: APS: AES Records. Frederick Osborn, “A Program of Eugenics,” undated paper circa May 1961: APS.

  50. Osborn to P.S. Barrows, 25 August 1965.

  51. Letter, Frederick Osborn to Paul Popenoe, 25 March 1965: APS: AES Records — Osborn Papers #2 — Letters on Eugenics. Letter, Frederick Osborn to Sheldon E. Hermanson, 12 April 1965: APS: AES Records — Osborn Papers #2 — Letters on Eugenics. See Osborn, “History of the American Eugenics Society,” p. 20.

  52. Letter, Frederick Osborn to Alexander Robertson, 11 October 1967: APS: AES Records — Osborn Papers #2 — Letters on Eugenics. Letter, Dick Hoefnagel to Carnegie Institute of Washington, 5 February 1968: CSH GRO Correspondence 1966-69.

  53. “#4519: Human Betterment League of North Carolina Records: Inventory,” at www.lib.unc.edu. AIM25, “Penrose, Correspondence,” at www.aim25.ac.uk. University College of London, “UCL & Galton,” at collection.ucl.ac.uk. “The Annals of Human Genetics Homepage,” at www.gene.ucl.ac.uk. “The Galton Institute: Annual Report, 1989.”: Wellcome SA/EUG/A 95.

  54. Osborn, “History of the American Eugerucs Society,” p. 9. Author’s interview with Jay Olshansky
, 10 February 2003. “American Eugenics Society,” at www.amphilsoc.org.

  55. See letter, B. C. Lake to Sewall Wright, 2 June 1954: APS: AES Records. See “American Genetic Association,” at lsvl.la.asu.edu/aga.

  56. See Planned Parenthood Federation of America, Inc., “About Us,” at www.plannedparenthood.org. See John R. Weeks, “Vignettes of PAA History: Milbank, Princeton and the War,” at www.pop.psu.edu. See “American Eugenics Society.” See “Population Council — Fiftieth Anniversary — Officers,” at www.pop-council.org.

  57. James D. Watson, “President of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory,” at www.cshl.org. See “Celebrating 50 years of DNA,” at www.dna50.org.

  CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE

  1. “Test-tube Baby Pioneer Backs Human Cloning,” The Telegraph, 6 September 2002. “Scientists: Cloned Sheep Dolly has ‘Old’ DNA,” Cable News Network, 27 May 1999. “World: Asia-Pacific Giant Pandas Follow Dolly,” British Broadcasting Corporation, 20 July 1998. “Scientists Await Birth of First Cloned Endangered Species,” Cable News Network, 5 January 2001. “Researchers Clone Pigs,” Cable News Network, 16 August 2000. “Carbon Copy Cat Cloned,” Nature, 14 February 2002. Texas A&M, “Texas A&M Clones First Cat,” press release of 14 February 2002. “OWU Professor Clones Mastodon Genes From Intestinal DNA,” Ohio Wesleyan University On-Line.

  2. “Clones in the Real World,” AP Wire Service, 4 March 200 1. “Clonaid: Baby ‘Clone’ Returns Home,” Cable News Network, 1 January 2003. World Future Society, “Futurist Update,” January 2000, at www.wfs.org. “Doctor Refuses to Identify Mother, Give Evidence of Provocative Claim,” SiliconValley.ctml, 27 November 2002. “Revealed: Couple Try to Have First Human Clone Baby,” Sunday Herald, 21 July 2002.

  3. Dorothy Wertz, “DNA Forensics: Professional and Patient Attitudes Internationally,” at hgm2002.hgu.mrc.ac.uk. Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Mission Statement and Backgtound,” at www.fbi.gov. Federal Bureau of Investigation, “FBI Laboratory: Forensic Systems,” at www.fbi.gov. Attorney General Transcript, “News Conference-DNA Initiatives,” 4 March 2002 as cited by Electronic Privacy Information Center and Privacy International, “Privacy and Human Rights 2002,” circa 2002, p. 30.

  4. “DNA Database ‘Should Include Every Citizen,’” NewScientist.ctml, 12 September 2002. 2nd International DNA users’ Conference for Investigative Officers, “Minutes: Forensic DNA Analysis in China,” at www.Interpol.int. “The National DNA Data Bank of Canada,” brochure circa 2002. 1st International DNA users’ Conference for Investigative Officers, “Austrian National DNA Database,” circa November 1999 at www.Interpol.int. 1st International DNA users’ Conference for Investigative Officers, “The DNA Database in The Netherlands,” circa November 1999 at www.Interpol.int. “Bundestag Establishes Legal Footing for Genetic Database,” DE News, 24 June 1998. “Privacy and Human Rights 2002,” p. 109. “In Louisiana, Debate Over a DNA Dragnet,” The Christian Science Monitor, 21 February 2003.

  5. “Fingerprint Fear,” NewScientist.com, 2 May 2001. R. Chen, P.S. Rabinovitch, D.A. Crispin, M. J. Edmond, K.M. Koprowicz, M.P. Bronner and T.A. Brenmall, “DNA Fingerprinting Abnormalities can Distinguish Ulcerative Colitis Patients with Dysplasia and Cancer from Those Who Are Dysplasia/Cancer-Free,” American Journol of Pathology, 162 (2) (February 2003), pp. 665-672.

  6. See 1st International DNA Users’ Conference for Investigative Officers, “Minutes,” circa 1999 at www.Interpol.int. See 2nd International DNA Users’ Conference for Investigative Officers, “Minutes,” circa 2001 at www.Interpol.int.

  7. Armed Forces Department of Pathology, “The Department of Defense DNA Registry,” at www.afip.org. Douglas J. Gillen, “Who Are You? DNA Registry Knows,” at www.defenselink.mil.

  8. Connecticut Department of Social Services, “DSS’s Biometric ID Project,” at www.dss.state.ct.us. Also see Gregory H. Smith, “Securing our Personal Genome,” (master’s thesis, Indiana University, 2003).

  9. See National Cancer Institute, “Understanding Gene Testing,” at press2.nci.nih.gov.

  10. Generally see Francis Galton, Finger Prints (New York: Da Capo Press, 1965).

  11. MIB Group. Inc., “About Us,” at www.mib.com. Author’s interviews with MIB Group, Inc. officials, 28 February 2003. Author’s investigation o,fMIB Group. Inc., February-March 2003.

  12. Author’s investigation of MIB Group. Inc., 28 February 2003. Also see author’s interviews with MIB Group, Inc. officials, 28 February 2003.

  13. See American Academy of Actuaries, “Genetic Information and Medical Expense Insurance,” monograph June 2000. pp. 2, 3.

  14. American Academy of Actuaries, p. 2.

  15. American Academy of Actuaries, pp. 2-3, 27-30.

  16. American Academy of Actuaries, “Issue Brief: The Use of Genetic Information in Disability Income and Long-Term Care Insurance,” briefing paper of 2002. p. 7.

  17. “Health Insurance Companies Accused of Genetic Bias,” British Broadcasting Corporation. 11 December 1998. Ann Deering, “Risk Reporter: Genetic Discrimination,” Risk Management Magazine.

  18. “Genetic Data ‘Insurance Fear,’” British Broadcasting Corporation, 27 November 2000. “The Price of Having the Wrong Genes,” British Broadcasting Corporation, 22 January 2001. “Britain Moves to Ban Insurance Genetic Tests,” Washington Post, 30 April 2001.

  19. Association of British Insurers, “Genetic Testing: Background,” at www.abi.org.uk. “Insurance Firm Admits Using Genetic Screening,” The London Times. 8 February 2001. “The Price of Having the Wrong Genes.” “Insurance Companies Announce Genetic Testing Halt,” The Scientist, 30 October 2001. Author’s interview with Norwich Union, 28 February 2003 and 5 March 2003.

  20. “Moratorium on Genetic Data Use,” British Broadcasting Corporation, 23 October 2001. Author’s interview with Norwich Union, 28 February 2003 and 5 March 2003.

  21. Trudo Lemmens. “Selective Justice, Genetic Discrimination, and Insurance: Should We Single Out Genes in Our Laws?” McGill Law Journal 45 347 (2000), pp. 353-354. Author’s interview with Industrial Alliance, 3 March 2003.

  22. Author’s interview with Industrial Alliance, 3 March 2003.

  23. “UK Forum for Genetics and Insurance,” at www.ukfgi.org.uk. International Actuarial Association, “3. Astin News / Nouvelles D’Astin,” IAA Bulletin AAI No. 36 (2002). MIB Group. Inc., “Special Section: Genetics,” at www.knowledgedigest.com.

  24. Office of Technology Assessment, “The Role of Genetic Testing in the Prevention of Occupational Disease,” (April 1983), p. 35. American Management Association as cited by The National Workrights Institute, “Genetic Discrimination in the Workplace Fact Sheet,” at www.workrights.org.

  25. “A Bloody Mess At One Federal Lab,” U.S. News and World Report, 23 June 1997. Author's interview with Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 3 March 2003.

  26. “Court Declares Right to Genetic Privacy,” U.S. News & World Report, 16 February 1998. “Privacy and Human Rights 2002,” p. 83. Author’s interview with Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 3 March 2003.

  27. Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railroad, “BNSF and EEOC Settle Genetic Testing Case Under Americans with Disabilities Act,” press release of 8 May 2002. Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railroad, “BNSF Ends DNA Testing For Carpal Tunnel Syndrome,” press release of 12 February 2001. Author’s interview with Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railroad. 27 February 2003.

  28. Author’s interview with Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railroad, 27 February 2003. Author’s interview with Athena Diagnostics. 28 February 2003.

  29. “China is Thwarted by Jobs Ruling.” The Guardian, 1 October 2000.

  30. “DNA Database ‘Should Include Every Citizen,’” “Privacy and Human Rights 2002.” p. 30. “DNA Tests for All Will Cut Crime, Says Pioneer,” The Telegraph 19 February 2001, at www.telegraph.co.uk.

  31. “Agreement Between the Minister of Health and Social Security and Islensk refdagreining ehf. in Connection With the Issuing of a License to Create and Operate a Health Sector Database (HSD),” at www
.mannvernd.is. “Profiling an Entire Nation,” Associated Press, 18 February 1999. Mannvernd, “Opts Out From Icelandic Health Sector Database,” at www.mannvernd.is. Mannvernd, “Status of Lawsuits Against the Health Sector Database Act and Related Matters,” at www.mannvernd.is. International Business Machines and deCODE Genetics, “deCODE and IBM Form Strategic Alliance to Deliver Technology Solution for Applying Genetics to Drug Discovery,” press release of 23 January 2003.

  32. Jean Pierre Sørensen, “IBM Life Sciences-Nordic: Pulling Together The Pieces,” Powerpoint Presentation circa 2003.

  33. Mark D. Uehling, “Decoding Estonia,” BioIT World, 10 February 2003 as cited by www.genomics.eelindex.php?lang:eng&nid:140.

  34. “Banking on Genes,” The Scientist, 4 December 2000. Autogen Limited, “ASX Announcement,” press release of 17 November 2000.

  35. Author’s communication with Autogen Limited, 3 March 2003. Autogen Limited, “ASX Announcement,” press release of 2 March 1999.

  36. The Wellcome Trust, “UK Biobank: A Study of Genes, Environment and Health,” at www.wellcome.ac.uk. “Phones Download DNA,” Nature, 26 February 2003. “Report of the Bioethics Advisory Committee the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities,” at www.weizmann.ac.il.

  37. Author’s communication with Congresswoman Louise M. Slaughter (D-NY), March 2003.

  38. Bionet, “Who Owns Your Genes?” at www.bionetonline.org. School of Health and Related Research, “Genetic Testing in the Workplace,” at www.shef.ac.uk.

  39. Author’s communication with Congresswoman Louise M. Slaughter (D-NY), March 2003.

  40. “Perfect Features: Science May Pave Way For Designer Babies,” ABCNews.com,

  26 December 2002. “A Way to Choose a Baby’s Gender,” Los Angeles Times, 3 March 2003.

  41. “Couple ‘Choose’ To Have Deaf Baby,” British Broadcasting Corporation, 8 April 2002. “Babies, Deaf by Design,” The Australian, 16 April 2002.

  42. “Stupidity Should Be Cured, Says DNA Discoverer,” New Scientist.com, 28 February 2003.