The Diamond Sutra

by Red Pine

  However, such an interpretation fails to mention or explain that while the first three modes of birth occur in the Realm of Desire, the fourth mode of birth includes beings in the Realm of Formlessness, such as certain devas and bodhisattvas. Hence, a hierarchy cannot be what the Buddha had in mind here. A simpler and more sensible reading is to see the Buddha’s presentation as three separate, all-inclusive schemes for the characterization of beings. Thus, beings can be distinguished not only as to their mode of birth but also as to whether or not they possess any rupa (form) or sanjna (perception). The Buddha, I suggest, was simply creating a definition that would be all-inclusive from any of these three perspectives. All beings are born in one of these four manners, all beings either have a bodily form or do not have a bodily form, and all beings perceive an external world or do not perceive an external world or neither perceive nor do not perceive an external world. The last two categories, of which we admittedly have little or no knowledge, were the subjects of discussions in the Buddha’s day and were added here to suggest the size of the Sea of Being in which the bodhisattva swims.

  Tzu-hsuan says, “The karma of our thoughts is the seed, while the egg, the womb, the water, and the air are the causal conditions. Thus, beings are the result of karma.”

  Te-ch’ing says, “These four kinds of birth can be characterized by appearance as well as by perception. But the birth, the appearance, and the perception of all beings are a fiction. Since they are fictions, beings do not really exist. Only our delusions exist.”

  Textual note: My choice of “air” for the Sanskrit upapaduka (to depend on nothing) is meant to describe the appearance of such birth as if from “thin air.” Chinese translators prefer hua-sheng (born by means of transformation). However, “transformation” is somewhat misleading, as the term does not apply to butterflies or cicadas but to such beings in the Formless Realm as devas, sinners, the first creatures of any universe, and certain bodhisattvas. “Miraculously” would also be a mistake as it suggests creation beyond the laws of karma, which, again, is not the case. The only Buddhist scholar I know of to offer a solution to this confusion is Garma Chang, who uses “ethereally” in his translation of the sutras that make up the Maha Ratnakuta.

  in whatever conceivable realm of being one might

  conceive of beings, in the realm of complete nirvana

  I shall liberate them all. And though I thus liberate

  countless beings, not a single being is liberated.’

  The term nirvana originally referred to an extinguished fire. In Buddhism, it is used to describe the condition that exists when the Three Fires of delusion, desire, and anger are extinguished. This is also called “incomplete nirvana,” because a being who achieves this state still has a body and is still subject to the laws of karma, and thus suffering. When the Buddha attained Enlightenment under the pippala (Ficus religiosa) tree at Bodhgaya, he achieved incomplete nirvana. When he expired between the twin shala trees (Shorea robusta) and his body was cremated at Kushinagara, he achieved complete nirvana. Thus, complete nirvana rises from the ashes of being. In the Shurangama Sutra, the Buddha says, “To eliminate the perception of nirvana is to liberate all beings.”

  In the Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines, the Buddha says, “With his divine eye, a bodhisattva sees countless beings, and what he sees disturbs him greatly: so many beings bound for rebirth in the hells or an unfortunate existence or suffering afflictions or beset by false views or oblivious to the path. All such beings arouse the thought: ‘I shall liberate all these beings and rescue them from their sufferings.’ But a bodhisattva does not do this or anything else with bias.” (22)

  Vasubandhu says, “How should those who set forth on the bodhisattva path stand? The following verse answers this question.”

  Asanga says, “Their thoughts are vast and noble, deep and not mistaken. Standing on good works, their path is filled with virtue.” (2) Summarizing Vasubandhu’s comments on this verse, Tao-ch’uan says, “Because they concern all beings, the thoughts of bodhisattvas are ‘vast.’ Because they are dedicated to liberating others, their thoughts are ‘noble.’ Because they understand that both beings and buddhas are the same as themselves and that they liberate no one, their thoughts are ‘deep.’ And because they aren’t attached to any of the four perceptions, their thoughts are ‘not mistaken.’”

  Wang Jih-hsiu says, “Nirvana is the place where we put an end to the round of birth and death and escape the wheel of endless rebirth. It is truly the greatest and most wonderful of places. But it does not mean death. Ordinary people do not understand this and mistakenly think it means death. They are wrong. By complete nirvana is meant ultimate liberation beyond which there is nothing else.”

  The Maha Prajnaparamita Shastra says, “Nirvana is the ultimate dharma beyond which there is no other dharma. But there are two kinds. The first is incomplete nirvana. The second is complete nirvana. When all our passions are eliminated, this is incomplete or provisional nirvana. When the five skandhas that make up an individual are no longer reborn, this is complete or final nirvana.” (31)

  Hui-neng says, “If you want a metaphor for incomplete nirvana, look at the ashes in a stove. If you want a metaphor for complete nirvana, what do you see when the ashes have been blown away?”

  Seng-chao says, “Nothing arises on its own. Everything is the result of karma. All it is is karma. It possesses no self-nature. According to the Middle Path, since nothing possesses any self-nature, it does not exist. Yet we give things a name, hence they do not not exist. Because we do not not give them names, we keep liberating beings. But because their natures are empty, we do not actually liberate anyone. And why don’t we liberate anyone? If the concept of a self existed, we could say that somebody is liberated. But since neither a self nor an other exist, who is liberated? It is only a fiction.”

  Ch’en Hsiung says, “Manjushri once asked the Buddha, ‘What do you mean when you say not a single being is liberated?’ And the Buddha replied, ‘Our nature is ultimately pure and subject to neither rebirth nor nirvana. Thus, there are no beings to be liberated, and there is no nirvana to be attained. It is simply that all beings revert to their own nature.’”

  Juo-na says, “According to the highest truth, no beings can be liberated. Since all beings are essentially buddhas, what beings are there to liberate? In the perfect realm of the true Dharma, buddhas do not liberate beings.”

  Tseng Feng-yi says, “Someone once asked Tsung-mi, ‘The sutras tell us to liberate beings. But if beings are not beings, why should we make an effort to liberate them?’ Tsung-mi replied, ‘If beings were real, liberating them would require an effort. But as you say they are not beings, so why not get rid of liberating and not liberating? ’ The questioner then asked, ‘The sutras tell us that the Buddha is eternal, but they also say he entered nirvana. If he is eternal, why did he enter nirvana? And if he entered nirvana, he is not eternal. Is this not a contradiction?’ Again, Tsung-mi answered, ‘Buddhas are not attached to appearances. How could their appearing in the world and entering nirvana be real? Pure water has no mind, and yet there is no image that does not appear in it. Nor does the image have a self.’ These two questions and answers explain the profound meaning in this section.”

  Han Ch’ing-ching says, “All those who set out on the bodhisattva path should not perceive a dharma much less a being. Bodhisattvas do not see anything called sansara, thus they do not cling to the perception of a being subject to sansara. Nor do they see anything called nirvana. Thus, they do not cling to the perception of a being subject to nirvana. Neither sansara nor nirvana is real. So how could bodhisattvas lead beings from one to the other?”

  In his Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana, Ashvagosha says, “Space is infinite, therefore worlds are infinite. Worlds are infinite, therefore beings are infinite. Beings are infinite, therefore mental distinctions are also infinite.” (3.3)

  Textual note: Kumarajiva does not include the phrase sattva-dhatau sattva
-sangrahena sangrhita (in whatever conceivable realm of being one might conceive of beings).

  “And why not? Subhuti, a bodhisattva who creates the

  perception of a being cannot be called a ‘bodhisattva.’

  And why not? Subhuti, no one can be called a bodhisattva

  who creates the perception of a self or who

  creates the perception of a being, a life, or a soul.”

  The Buddha tells Subhuti that the bodhisattva’s practice only succeeds if it is devoted to the liberation of all beings and at the same time detached from the perception of being. Like fish in the ocean, bodhi-sattvas swim in the sattva sea. Free of the perception of being, bodhi-beings free all beings. Thus, we have been liberated countless times. The Vimalakirti Sutra says, “All beings have already been liberated. They do not need to be liberated again.” (4) Every time someone is enlightened, we are all liberated again. And yet we continue to drown in the sea of being. Meanwhile, the enlightened-beings who liberate us are not only free of the perception of being, they are also free of the perception of self. Not only is no one liberated, no one liberates. Moreover, there is no liberation. For bodhisattvas are also free of the perceptions of life and rebirth around which liberation turns. Thus, bodhisattvas control thoughts that are no thoughts.

  Throughout the Maha Prajnaparamita Sutra, the Buddha lists sixteen such perceptions that represent the different views common in his day concerning the element of our existence believed to be permanent or real. The four included here focus on the dimensions of space and time. Atma (self) refers to an inner reality, sattva (being) to an outer reality, jiva (life) to a present reality, and pudgala (soul) to a future (or past) reality. Thus, bodhisattvas stand without being attached to the spatial dimension of self and being, they walk without being attached to the temporal dimension of life and soul, and they control their thoughts without being attached to the perceptual dimension of objects and dharmas.

  Throughout this sutra, the Buddha and Subhuti often repeat the phrase tat kasya hetoh (and why [not]). When they do, the second occurrence does not necessarily introduce an explanation of the first answer but often adds another answer to the first question. In such cases, the phrase could easily be replaced by the word “moreover.”

  Te-ch’ing says, “The primary method taught by the Buddha to liberate beings is to realize that there is no self. Once there is a self, the other concepts follow. In liberating beings, a bodhisattva should realize that there is no self. Once there is no self, there are no beings. And if there are no beings, then all beings are naturally liberated. And once all beings are liberated, the fruit of buddhahood is not far off.”

  Tzu-hsuan says, “Belief in a self is the most basic of all beliefs. All other perceptions arise from this. Once there is no perception of a self, there is no perception of other beings. When there is no perception of other beings, self and other beings become the same.”

  Ting Fu-pao says, “The perception of a self refers to the mistaken apprehension of something that focuses within and controls the five skandhas of form, sensation, perception, volition, and cognition. The perception of a being refers to the mistaken apprehension that the combination of the skandhas creates a separate entity. The perception of a life refers to the mistaken belief that the self possesses a lifespan of a definite length. Finally, the perception of a soul refers to the mistaken apprehension of something that is reborn, either as a human or as one of the other forms of existence.”

  Ch’en Hsiung says, “The Complete Enlightenment Sutra says, ‘Until you get rid of these four perceptions, you can’t attain enlightenment.’ When bodhisattvas resolve on attaining perfect enlightenment and accept the Tathagata’s perceptionless teaching, how can they still harbor these four perceptions. If even but one of these remain, they will think they are liberating someone. A person who harbors the perception of a being is not a bodhisattva. Bodhisattvas and beings do not possess different natures. When they are awake, beings are bodhisattvas. When they are deluded, bodhisattvas are beings.”

  Hui-neng says, “The nature of buddhas and beings is not different. But because beings suffer from these four perceptions, they cannot achieve complete liberation. To employ these four perceptions is to be a being. Not to employ them is to be a buddha. When they’re deluded, buddhas becomes beings. When they’re awake, beings become buddhas.”

  Lin-chi says, “In this body of five skandhas is the true person of no title. He’s standing right there in plain sight. Why don’t you recognize him?”

  Meng-ts’an says, “The Buddha is telling Subhuti, ‘If you want to still and control your mind, this is what you must do. You must vow to free all beings without becoming attached to the perception of a being. This is how you should vow to free all beings.’ To do this, you need to make use of wisdom, not intelligence. Intelligence differentiates, wisdom does not.”

  Tao-ch’uan says, “The spacious great way is so gloriously clear / what everyone possesses is already perfect / but due to a single divisive thought / ten-thousand forms appear before us.”

  Textual note: In place of this section, Kumarajiva has a single sentence: juo p’u-sa yu wo-hsiang, jen-hsiang, chung-sheng-hsiang, shou-chehsiang, chi fei p’u-sa (a bodhisattva who possesses the perception of a self, the perception of a person [i.e., something reborn], the perception of a being, or the perception of a life is no bodhisattva). Kumarajiva takes sanjna to mean “perception” in this chapter and “appearance” in the next chapter. Also, while Kumarajiva, Paramartha, and Yi-ching include atma (self), Bodhiruci and Dharmagupta do not. Among Sanskrit editions, Conze includes it, as does the Stein edition, while Müller does not. Paramartha replaces Kumarajiva’s jen (person) with shou-che (recipient [of karma and, hence, a soul]) and places it at the end of the list, as do the Sanskrit editions of Conze and Müller. Yi-ching does the same with keng-ch’iu-ch’u (what seeks another existence). Finally, Hsuan-tsang has an altogether different list: yu-ch’ing (being), ming-che (life), shih-fu (person), pudgala (soul), yi-sheng (projected creature), manavaka (man), tsoche (actor), shou-che (recipient). And at the end of this section, he has ho-yi-ku, shan-hsien, wu-yu shao-fa ming-wei fa-ch’u p’u-sa-sheng-che (and why not, Subhuti, because there is nothing whatsoever that sets forth on the bodhisattva vehicle).

  Chapter Four: “Moreover, Subhuti, when bodhisattvas give a gift, they should not be attached to a thing. When they give a gift, they should not be attached to anything at all. They should not be attached to a sight when they give a gift. Nor should they be attached to a sound, a smell, a taste, a touch, or a dharma when they give a gift. Thus, Subhuti, fearless bodhisattvas should give a gift without being attached to the perception of an object. And why? Subhuti, the body of merit of those bodhisattvas who give a gift without being attached is not easy to measure. What do you think, Subhuti, is the space to the east easy to measure?”

  Subhuti replied, “No, it is not, Bhagavan.”

  The Buddha said, “Likewise, is the space to the south, to the west, to the north, in between, above, below, or in any of the ten directions easy to measure?”

  Subhuti replied, “No, it is not, Bhagavan.”

  The Buddha said, “So it is, Subhuti. The body of merit of those bodhisattvas who give a gift without being attached is not easy to measure. Thus, Subhuti, those who set forth on the bodhisattva path should give a gift without being attached to the perception of an object.”

  CHAPTER FOUR

  IN THE PREVIOUS CHAPTER, the Buddha told Subhuti that bodhisattvas give birth to the thought of liberating others but without creating the perception of a self, a being, a life, or a soul. What they give birth to is the gift of liberation. But it is only liberation if it is given without attachment, without attachment to any object of the senses, including the mind. The previous chapter focused on the giver and the recipient. This chapter focuses on the gift. The Buddha also anticipates our doubts about what merit can possibly result from such practice. For it is only by means of merit that spiritual
progress is possible. This is the law of karma, which also applies to bodhisattvas. Every fruit grows from a seed. But if we practice without being attached to our practice, what sort of merit can we expect? The fruit from a seed without limits turns out to be a fruit without limits, which prompts the question answered in the next chapter: what kind of fruit could possibly have no limits?

  Chao-ming titles this: “The Wonderful Practice of No Attachment.”

  Hui-neng says, “Those able to practice according to the true meaning are not attached to form. Thus follows a chapter on the wonderful practice of no attachment.”

  “Moreover, Subhuti, when bodhisattvas give a gift

  they should not be attached to a thing. When they

  give a gift, they should not be attached to anything

  at all.