An Introduction to the Geography of Tourism

by Velvet Nelson

  The beginning of modern tourism development is commonly placed in eighteenth-century Western Europe. The verb tour had come into usage in the English language in the seventeenth century, and by the eighteenth century, the noun tourist had developed to describe those who traveled, typically for pleasure or culture. At this time, tourism became a popular activity among the elite upper classes that had sufficient disposable income and leisure time. In particular, Britain is cited as not only one of the first nations to develop tourism but also one of the largest sources of tourists during this early era. With new innovations in transportation, tourism was increasingly expanded to the middle classes as well. As a result, the greatest quantity of research has focused on the emergence and expansion of tourism that started in the eighteenth century and accelerated throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

  There is also a distinctly practical reason for this regional and temporal bias in historical tourism research. Eighteenth-century European Grand Tour travel is the first era of tourism in which there is significant source material for analysis. In that era and since, a tremendous amount of source material—including tourists’ personal diaries, letters, and published narratives, as well as travel company literature and promotions—was produced and provides us with insights into why people traveled, where they went, how they got there, and what their experiences were.

  We have considerably less information about tourism in earlier time periods. Likewise, we have little information about tourism in different geographic regions. For example, we know comparatively little about tourism in Asian cultures, such as China, Japan, and India, despite indications that activities such as religious pilgrimages have been taking place there over an even greater scope of time than in Europe. Even the sources that are widely available for historic tourism research are limited in perspective. Most of the sources from the Grand Tour era were produced by tourists themselves. Considerably less data is available from a supply side perspective, including from individuals providing services to these tourists. Thus, the following discussion is necessarily selective.

  Roman Tourism

  Although examples of travel for health, culture, or pleasure may be found in other ancient civilizations, such as Greece, the Romans may be considered the first true tourists based on a number of parallels with later—even modern—eras of tourism. We do not have the benefit of historical sources, such as letters and diaries, to provide in-depth perspectives on tourists and their activities during this era; however, information can be obtained from archaeological evidence and the writings of scholars and social commentators that have survived the passage of time.

  There were several key factors that laid the foundation for tourism in the Roman Empire. One of the most important was the two-hundred-year long period of peace and stability that the empire enjoyed (called the Pax Romana—from the end of the first century BCE to the end of the second century AD), which is typically a precondition for tourism. This helped create a prosperous society that was able to develop an interest in traveling to other places for health or pleasure without fear of having to cross hostile territory.

  At the same time, the Roman Empire had a well-developed transportation infrastructure. This extensive network of paved roads was originally built for military purposes and to connect the empire’s vast land area, as well as providing the basis for commercial trade. Increased patterns of movement within the empire also generated new developments in public transportation, with organized relays of horses at five- or six-mile intervals, by which a person could travel up to one hundred miles per day. Likewise, inns were established along the roads to accommodate traveling government officials and merchants. This infrastructure also facilitated travel for pleasure.

  The Romans had various motivations for travel, many of which had a distinctly practical basis. For example, one motivation was military tourism. Soldiers had explicit reasons for traveling, but these expeditions could also be combined with pleasure. Women and children might be allowed to travel with their husbands and fathers, and families could visit attractions along the way. The Romans had developed an appreciation for leisure and entertainment activities. This meant that at least part of the population had free time outside of work and necessary daily chores and that they enjoyed celebrations that were distinct from religious rituals or ceremonies.

  Health tourism was also widely practiced among the Romans. Some invalids traveled to places with distinct physical properties, such as mineral waters or hot springs, that would be beneficial to those with certain health conditions. Perhaps more significantly, people traveled to escape places with conditions that would be detrimental to their health. All but the poorest citizens left Rome during the summer due to extreme heat and the rampant spread of disease among the crowded urban population. These middle- and upper-class citizens would retreat to the surrounding countryside in lower altitudes of mountainous regions, where temperatures would be lower and the air fresher. Similarly, seaside resorts in the coastal region between Rome and Naples became popular destinations for those seeking to get away from the city. These fashionable resorts replicated the best parts of social life from Rome and offered entertainments including baths, dining, concerts and theater performances, and even gladiator games.

  Only a few privileged groups had the time and resources to be able to travel farther afield in the Mediterranean region. This included the most affluent families, high-ranking government officials, and young men from the upper class in the process of completing their education. Cultural attractions such as temples and ancient monuments formed the basis of many destinations. Most cities had temples that not only represented a god or goddess but also served the function of museum with collections of statues, paintings, and artifacts. The list of the Seven Wonders of the World created some of the most sought-after destinations and formed the basis for an early version of the Grand Tour. This was a tourist itinerary, typically through Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt, comprised of the most important sights. Egypt, in particular, boasted of wonders such as the Pyramids of Giza and the Lighthouse of Alexandria, as well as landscapes and a culture that would have seemed different and exotic to Roman tourists. In contrast, the mountainous landscapes of the Alps were generally avoided, as they were considered barriers to travel rather than attractions.

  Roman tourism has been described as being “typically modern” and having “nearly all of the trappings of its late-twentieth century counterpart, even to the final ironies.”2 Roman tourists visited many of the same sites popular among tourists today. They had the benefit of guidebooks to instruct them on what they were to see; however, they had to read about the sites before their travels because the books were expensive, large, heavy, leather-bound volumes of papyrus sheets. During the course of their travels, Roman tourists would hire guides. To remember their experiences, they would sketch the scenes they saw or purchase souvenirs, such as paintings, artifacts, or miniature replicas of statues or monuments.

  Religious Pilgrimages

  Despite the apparent familiarity of the type of tourism seen during the Pax Romana, it was not to last. The collapse of the Roman Empire brought an end to these patterns. The transportation infrastructure fell into disrepair, and traveling became a dangerous proposition with the poor condition of roads; closed inns; and various threats of wild animals, thieves, and hostile territories. As such, there was little thought of traveling for pleasure. Only the most adventurous, the most determined, or those who absolutely had to would risk travel.

  In particular, one of the most common forms of tourism during the Middle Ages (from the fifth to the fifteenth centuries) was undertaken by devout individuals with strongly held spiritual beliefs. Some of the best-known and frequently visited shrines included Santiago de Compostela in Spain (as early as the ninth century) and Canterbury in England (from the twelfth century). Pilgrimages were also undertaken to the Holy Land, although this was a much more difficult, time-consuming, expensive, and dangerous journey for those tra
veling from Europe. At this time, travel for health reasons became intertwined with religious pilgrimages. The Roman Church had an extremely powerful influence over life during the Middle Ages, and people increasingly turned to faith healing. They traveled to shrines with the express purpose of appealing to the patron saint for miraculous cures. Given the generally poor living conditions during this period, with high rates of malnutrition and disease, this became a relatively common practice.

  By the late medieval period, pilgrimages were being undertaken on such a large scale that they became more organized. The demand for information about the places pilgrims would visit and the routes they would have to take gave rise to a new type of travel guide, including directions, descriptions of places, and even possible accommodations. One of the problems that pilgrims faced was a lack of inns and certainly a lack of quality inns. The local gentry would typically house travelers from the upper classes. Charitable hospices were formed to accommodate travelers from the lower classes, but eventually the sheer number of travelers overwhelmed these institutions. As a result, there was a renewed demand for paid accommodations by the middle classes, and inns began to be established once more. Eventually, regular tours were organized where guides would take pilgrims to the most popular sites and shrines on designated routes and stay at preapproved inns.

  At the dawn of the Renaissance, pilgrimages were still extremely popular, but the nature of the journeys was beginning to change. Many people had the desire to make a pilgrimage, and pilgrims came from all social classes except the poorest. The pilgrimage became very attractive as one of the few justifiable reasons for leaving home, and the expanding infrastructure helped make travel a bit easier. These factors combined gave rise to other motivations for travel, including pleasure. Moreover, the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century diminished the belief in the miraculous shrines that pilgrims had visited en masse. Interest in travel was maintained, but tourists now looked for new experiences.

  Spa Tourism

  Starting in the seventeenth century, many concurrent developments began to take place in tourism that contributed to the evolution of the modern tourism industry. The first of these developments was spa tourism. Health had long been a primary motivator for travel. Physicians put forth many theories about which environments possessed the best curative properties for various conditions, most notably tuberculosis. Spas—places usually possessing mineral springs—had been used intermittently over time as destinations for invalids seeking cures for different ailments. The important role of faith healing during the medieval era led to a decline in early spas, but by the seventeenth century, they experienced a resurgence with visits from members of royal and noble families. There was a growing interest in balneotherapy, or water therapy, and physicians widely promoted cures from either drinking or bathing in mineral waters. Thus, spas had the dual benefit of possessing health-giving properties and providing an escape from the poor environmental conditions of the increasingly polluted industrial cities. As a result, by the eighteenth century, English spas such as Bath and Tunbridge Wells had become immensely popular.

  Although spas were initially developed for those seeking cures, and in some cases prevention, soon they increasingly became known as fashionable and exclusive resorts. As the socialization function became more and more important, resorts increasingly built promenades and assembly rooms and offered theater performances, concerts, dances, receptions, card parties, and gambling. Eventually, “seasons” developed in which the upper classes would converge on spa towns for the entertainment and to both see and be seen. These spas reproduced many aspects of London society.

  The earliest resorts were located around mineral springs in areas that were inland and relatively accessible to London. At this time, the coast and the sea were seen as dangerous places to be avoided if possible. It was a wild landscape full of hazards, from unpredictable weather to pirates and smugglers. However, by the late eighteenth century, several factors contributed to a change in attitudes and allowed new spa resorts to emerge. First, a new appreciation began to develop for rugged natural scenery and the forces of nature that had formerly generated fear. Second, physicians began to advocate the health advantages of the seaside, including taking brisk walks along the beach, drinking seawater, and even sea bathing. Sea bathing was a carefully regulated activity, typically undertaken with the aid of bathing machines. These wooden structures allowed the bather to be gradually immersed in the water safely and privately, the latter being especially important for ladies.

  As seaside spas began to develop, they provided a complement to inland resorts. Visits to the seaside would take place at different times of the year than the social season at the fashionable inland destinations. However, the seaside spas were increasingly developed into resorts with the same comforts and entertainments and thus started to compete with the traditional inland resorts for status and clientele. Sill, overall numbers visiting the seaside remained relatively small. As with the inland resorts, the most successful spas, such as Brighton, were those that were relatively accessible from London. Transportation by stagecoach often made farther resorts impractical because this mode was expensive, and poor roads made travel both slow and uncomfortable.

  Over the course of the nineteenth century, seaside spas experienced a number of changes. The development of resort towns changed the nature of the coastline, which had once been characterized by scattered fishing villages. These resort towns began to be connected by new modes of transportation, including steamship travel and passenger trains. These innovations shortened travel time and reduced the expense of travel, allowing more people from the middle classes to make the trip. This brought further changes in the nature of the resorts. The earlier, upper-class tourists rented houses for the season and established a temporary residence complete with their own serving staff. The increase in middle-class tourists, who spent a shorter amount of time at the destination, created a demand for the development of accommodation facilities such as hotels and boarding houses.

  By the second half of the nineteenth century, even the working classes were able to travel to the resorts. In some cases, the trip could be made for just a day with faster and more reliable rail service. This meant that more people could travel, even if they weren’t able to get away for extended periods of time or didn’t have the money to stay in a hotel. These tourists brought ever more changes to the resorts. Less emphasis was placed on curing illnesses and more on promoting well-being. Sea bathing with the use of expensive bathing machines fell out of favor, and tourists were encouraged to get out and enjoy the fresh sea air. Perhaps the most important component of a seaside holiday was the pursuit of pleasure, as these tourists sought to emulate the life of leisure displayed by the upper classes—at least for a short time.

  Once these resorts were seen as less exclusive, the upper class, followed by the middle class, began looking for new destinations, often abroad. The same transportation innovations that made traditional resorts more accessible also helped open up new resorts across Europe. These tourists particularly looked to the new winter resorts developing in the Mediterranean region, such as the Côte d’Azur in France. As with the coastal resorts in Britain, these areas were previously underutilized for tourism. However, with the development of spa tourism, the region’s mild climate was highly desirable among northern tourists and was popularized by the British royal family. Likewise, members of the Austrian royal family made other resorts fashionable, particularly within their own empire, such as Opatija on the Istrian Peninsula.

  Although these resorts provided relief from the cold, damp northern winters, they were generally to be avoided during the summer. In the Victorian era, tanned skin was highly unfashionable and considered a sign of the working classes. In addition, clothing styles were tight and made from heavy materials that would have been unsuitable for the Mediterranean summer heat.

  By the early twentieth century, new developments contributed not only to additional changes at t
hese existing resorts but also the creation of new destinations around the world. As the latest craze in health remedies, some physicians began recommending heliotherapy, based on exposure to sunlight. However, it was perhaps fashion that played the greatest role. Clothing styles evolved to become less restrictive and hot, which allowed people to spend more time in the sun. As more people swam freely in the ocean, swimwear was also needed. Suntans became fashionable, as the upper classes had time to spend at resort destinations in the sun, while the working classes were stuck inside in factories.

  Thus, a new tourism product, based on the combination of sun and sea, became enormously popular. The Mediterranean was at the heart of this new trend. Developments in air transport and relatively inexpensive foreign package vacations made the Mediterranean more accessible. At the same time, new and exotic resorts were developed around the world, including the Caribbean basin and Southeast Asia. Interestingly, the original coastal resorts in England experienced a decline. Upper- and middle-class tourists had the opportunity to visit new resorts, which left the old resorts to day-trippers and lower-income tourists who could not afford to travel abroad. Moreover, with little new investment, the infrastructure became outdated. For example, at some of the early resorts where tourists had arrived by train, there were few parking facilities to accommodate those now arriving by car.

  International Tourism

  At the same time spas were developing in Britain, international tourism was also developing in the form of the Grand Tour. A variation of the Grand Tour took place as early as the Elizabethan era in the sixteenth century and evolved into the traditional Grand Tour era from the mid-seventeenth century through the eighteenth century. This was originally intended to provide young British men from the aristocratic class with a classical education. Often traveling with tutors, they would visit the cultural centers of Renaissance Europe and sites of classic antiquity. Italy, above all, was the focal point of such a tour, with destinations such as Venice, Florence, Rome, and Naples.