Eye of the Beholder: Johannes Vermeer, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, and the Reinvention of Seeing
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Index
Page numbers beginning with 331 refer to endnotes.
abstractionism, 282–83
Accademia dei Lincei, 61, 65
Accademia del Cimento, Florence, 236
Acquet, Hendrik d’, 160–61
Act of Seclusion (1654), 167
Addison, Joseph, 305
Ad Vitellionem paralipomena (Kepler), 87
Aelst, Evert van, 28, 29, 143, 270, 337
Aelst, Willem van, 28–29, 143, 225
Africa, 14
Aglionby, William, 17, 26, 47
agricultural techniques, Dutch Republic’s devlopment of, 16
air pumps, 5
Albert, Archduke of Austria, 60
Alberti, Leon Battista, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 142
Alberti veil (intersection), 84–85, 102, 139, 298
alchemy, alchemists, 136
secrecy of, 260–61
Aldrovandi, Ulisse, 241
Aleandro, Girolamo, 64–65
Aleurobius, 313
Alexander VII, Pope (Fabio Chigi), 39
Alhazen (Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham), 77–78, 125–26, 130, 348, 360
Allart, Huyck, 218
amoeba, 303–4
Amstel River, 51
Amsterdam, 26, 29, 53, 207, 238, 338
cloth trade in, 53
Flemish printers in, 52
guilds in, 52
as hub of European art market, 53
immigrants in, 52
as industrial capital of Dutch Republic, 53
Leeuwenhoek in, 50, 51–52, 54–55
as mapmaking center, 217
Plan of the Three Canals in, 51–52
population of, 51, 52
prostitutes and brothels in, 54
religious and political toleration in, 52
stock exchange (bourse) of, 53, 211
anatomical theaters, 7, 238–39, 244
artists and, 160, 239
as research centers, 239
anatomy:
dissections and, see dissections
Dutch discoveries in, 231
mechanistic approaches to, 140, 360–61
microscopic investigations of, 235, 237–38, 239–40, 248–49
Anglo-Dutch wars:
First (1652–54), 67, 182
Second (1665–67), 182–83, 234
Third (1672–78), 207–11, 229–30, 262
Anguillula (vinegar eels), Leeuwenhoek’s investigation of, 258–59
animals:
anatomy of, see anatomy
reproduction in, see generation
viviparous, 242, 245, 259
Antilles, 14
Antwerp, 15, 21
apertures, 61
of camera obscura, 125–26, 127
apprentices, of artists, 28–37
aquamarine, 34–35
“aqueous humor,” 114
Aristophanes, 56
Aristotelians, 317
as contradicted by observation, 122, 135, 186–87
Galileo’s ridiculing of, 186–87
rigid beliefs of, 5, 7, 9, 120, 186–87
Aristotle, 5, 7, 9, 57, 76, 82, 135, 186, 242, 324, 347
on generation, 243
Arithmeticae et geomitrae practica (Metius), 163
Ars magna (Kircher), 357
art, 8
Dutch as consumers of, 25–26
interconnectedness of science and, 9–11
as mirror of nature, 8
and new conception
of seeing, see learning to see
optical instruments and, 8, 101–2
photography as, 322
as “scientific,” 136
technology and, 321–22
see also artists; painting
art dealers, 37, 212, 216, 267, 336
artists:
anatomical theaters and, 160, 239
apprenticeships of, 28–37
camera obscura used by, 128–29, 142, 285–86, 361, 365
compasses used by, 83–84
direct observation emphasized by, 136
magnifying glases used by, 10–11
mapmaking by, 221–22
mirrors used by, 81–83, 98, 157
as natural philosophers, 10–11, 12
optical instruments used by, 101–2, 137, 139, 185, 318, 320, 321–22, 324–25
as secretive about methods, 142–43
theology and, 224–25
workshops and studios of, 36–37
see also art; painting
artists’ guilds, 27, 37
see also St. Luke’s Guild
asphericity, 133
Assyria, 56
Ast, Balthasar van der, 155
Astronomer, The (Vermeer), 217, 218–19, 281, 366
Leeuwenhoek as possible model for, 162–63, 325
astronomers, mapmaking and, 219
Astronomiae pars optica (Kepler), 357
atomists, 236
Aubrey, John, 289
Ausonio, Ettore, 129
authority, rejection of, 324
Averlino, Antonio di Pietro (Filarete), 82, 90
Avicenna, 140
Baburen, Dirck van, 74
The Procuress, 74
Bacon, Francis, 4, 131, 135, 169, 190, 312, 370
artists’ awareness of ideas of, 222–23
Dutch enthusiasm for, 190–91, 222–23
Huygens and, 190
on microscopes, 189–90
observation valued over logic by, 186, 187, 188–89, 200, 288
theology and, 191–92
Bacon, Roger, 126
bacteria, 304
Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of, 257
Baen, Genesius, 162
Baerle, Suzanna van (Suzanna Huygens), 168, 172
Bagijnhof, Delft, 49
Baglivi, Giorgio, 206
Baker, Henry, 303, 304
Balthasar Gerritsz., 225
in counterfeiting scheme, 23–24
bankruptcy:
of Catharina Bolnes, 273–74
laws of, 174
Banks, Joseph, 261
Barbaro, Daniele, 127–28, 134, 151
Barberini, Cardinal, 39
Bardone, Paris, 228
barometers, 5, 106
Bartolotti house, Amsterdam, 26
Bassen, Bartholomeus van:
Imaginary Palace for the Winter King, 155
The Tomb of William the Silent in an Imaginary Church, 155
Bayle, Pierre, 202
bedriegertjes, 138
Beeck, Johannes Symonsz. van der, see Torrentius, Johannes
Beeckman, Isaac, 58, 236, 370
Behn, Aphra, 234
Bempden, Jodocus van den, 178
Benedetti, Giovanni Battista, 129
Benthuizen, 49, 113
Bentivoglio, Guido, 60
Berch, Catharina Jacobs. van den, 45
Berch, Cornelis Jacobsz. van den, 49–50, 112–13
Berch, Johan Sebastiaensz. van den, 50
Berch, Magdalena Jacobs. van den, 45
Berch, Magriete “Grietge” van der, 50, 70, 230
marriage of Jacob Molijn and, 47
marriage of Philips Leeuwenhoek and, 45, 46, 47
Berch, Margaretha van den, 161
Berch, Sebastiaen Cornelisz. van den, 50
Berch, van den, family, 166
Berckhout, Pieter Teding van, 174
Bergh, Daniel de, 165
Bergh, Gillis de, 165
Bergh, Mateus de, 165
Berkeley, George, 116
Berkelse-Lake, 251–52
Berkenrode, Balthasar Florisz. van, 217–18
Berkenrode-Blaeu map, 217–18, 311
Beyeren, Abraham van, 226
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, 220
Bie, Cornelis de, 8
Blaeu, Willem Jansz., 217–18, 219
Blake, William, 305
Blazing World, The (Cavendish), 170
Bleyswijck, Dirck van, 20, 22, 69
Bloemaert, Abraham, 41, 337–38
blood, Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of corpuscles in, 248–49
Boerhaave, Herman, 190–91, 292
Boitet, 160, 161, 298
Bol, Ferdinand, 178
Bolnes, Catharina, 40, 41–43, 46, 71, 176, 271, 282, 338
bankruptcy petition of, 273–74
Catholicism of, 38, 40
children of, 71, 95, 178, 179, 212, 383
death of, 282
inventory of property of, 272–73
separation of assets of Vermeer and, 274
and settlement of Vermeer’s estate, 268, 271–77, 282
Vermeer’s courtship and marriage of, 37–43, 166, 338
and Vermeer’s death, 267–68
Bolnes, Cornelia, 41, 46
Bolnes, Reynier, 40
Bolnes, Willem, 275
Bologna, 239
silk industry in, 240
Boogert, François, 166
Boogert, Jan, 166, 263
Borch, Gerard ter, 94, 216, 338
Soldier Offering a Young Woman Coins, 75
bordeeltje (brothel scenes), 74
Boreel, Willem, 345
Borel, Pierre, 65, 114, 197–98, 200, 248–49
Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, 235–36
Borghese, Cardinal Scipione, 60
Boswell, William, 190
Bourne, William, 90, 129
bourse (stock exchange), Amsterdam, 53, 211
Boyle, Robert, 63, 132, 141, 175, 184, 185, 196, 236, 237
as alchemist, 261
Brahe, Tycho, 57–58, 82, 127, 219
brain, visual centers of, 320–21
Bramer, Leonaert, 37–38, 338
Brammer, Pieter, 13
Brazil, 14
Breda, Peace of (1667), 168, 183
breweries, in Delft, 18–19, 21, 22–23, 46
Brewster, David, 56
Bril, Paul, 171
brothel scenes (bordeeltje), 74
Brouncker, William, Viscount, 184, 277–78
Browne, William, 164
Bruges, 15
Brugghen, Gerard ter, 32
Brugghen, Hendrik ter, 171
Brunelleschi, Filippo, 78–79, 84
perspective theory of, 78
Burch, Hendrick van der, 70n, 270–71
Burch, Jannetge van der, 70
Burch, Margrieta van den, 230
Burch, Rochers van der, 70n
Burch, W. V., 263
Burnet, Gilbert, 292
burning glasses, 55, 56
see also magnifying glasses
Busby, Richard, 195–96
Buyten, Hendrick van, 176, 271–72, 286, 384
cabinets of curiosities, 14, 135–36, 155, 160–61, 222, 292
calculus, 207
Calvinists, Calvinism, 25, 47, 54, 192, 224
camera obscura, 2–4, 10, 12, 29, 130–31, 167, 357
aperture of, 125–26, 127
artists’ use of, 128–29, 142, 285–86, 361, 365
astronomers’ use of, 125, 126–27, 130
box-type, 123–24, 131–34, 143, 185, 331, 355, 362
brightness range narrowed by, 148
Canaletto’s use of, 144, 362
coining of term, 130, 357
concentration of color by, 149
convex lenses in, 127–28
diaphragm in, 128, 151
“disks of confusion” produced by, 151
of Drebbel, 123–24, 132–33, 332, 355
eye compared to, 140, 141, 360, 361
Huygens and, 123–24, 132–33, 143, 167, 172, 332, 355
learning to see and, 141
lenses of, 127–28, 133–34
mapmaking and, 220–21
mirrors in, 129
optical principle behind, 125
perspective theory and, 146–47
shadows and, 149
spherical aberration in, 150, 151
Steadman on Vermeer’s use of, 153–56
and topographical drawings, 130, 131, 144, 164
Van Hoogstraten and, 138
Vanvitelli’s use of, 144–45, 362
Vermeer’s possible use of, 143–57, 215, 220–21, 297, 315–16, 318, 324–25, 364–65
see also solar microscopes
Canaletto, camera obscura used by, 144, 362
canvas:
painting on, 30–31
standardized sizes of, 156
capillaries:
Leeuwenhoek’s observations of, 292
Malpighi’s discovery of, 240
carnelian (Florence Lake), 34
Cartesians, Cartesianism, 237, 238, 288–89
see also Descartes, René
cataracts, 57, 116
Catholics, Catholicism, 6, 38–40, 41, 48–49, 232
in Delft, 38–39, 49, 210, 232
in Dutch Republic, 38–39, 48–49
marriages of Protestants and, 38
Protestant antipathy toward, 38–39
scientific inquiry stifled by, 192
Vermeer’s conversion to, 38, 49, 73
Cats, Jacob, 40, 192
Cavendish, Margaret, Duchess of Newcastle upon Tyne, 170, 235, 241, 305, 380
cells, Hooke’s discovery and naming of, 198
Cesariano, Cesare, 128
Cesi, Federico, 61, 65, 114, 197
Ceylon, 14
Charles I, King of England, 124n, 167, 170
Charles II, King of England, 168, 176, 182, 184, 199, 211, 229, 234, 266, 291
Cheselden, William, 116–17, 321
chiaroscuro, 75
children, childhood:
birth festivities for, 178–79
deaths of, 178
in Dutch Republic, 46–47
cholera, 305
Christ Church, Oxford, 196
Christina, Queen of Sweden, 187
chromatic aberration, 120, 178–79, 205, 206
Cigoli, Lodovico, 85–86, 140
Ciliates, 252n
Claes Gerritsz., 225
in counterfeiting scheme, 23–24
Claesz, Pieter, 106n
Claude glass, 91
clothing, cost of, 101
cloth trade, 50, 53, 203
in Dutch Republic, 50, 54–55
global aspects of, 55
Leeuwenhoek’s apprenticeship in, 50, 51, 54–55
magnifying classes used in, 55
Clouds, The (Aristophanes), 56
cochineal beetle, 34
Cocq, Dirck de, 212