A History of Japanese Art

by Noritake Tsuda

  The wooden statues in the preceding periods were ornamented with colors over the whole surface. But in this period, for the first time, the sculptor began to use the natural color of wood to obtain a beautiful effect in the finish.

  Fig. 52. Nine-headed Kwannon (N.T.)

  Hōryū-ji, Yamato

  Fig. 53. Eleven-headed Kwannon (N.T.)

  Hokke-ji, Yamato

  Such works developed in the later T'ang Dynasty and were introduced to Japan during the period of the later eighth and early ninth centuries, and had a new influence on the development of wooden sculpture. We may see a unique example of such works in the Nine-headed Kwannon (Fig. 52) preserved in the Kōfūzō of the Hōryū-ji monastery. It is only a little over one foot in height, but it is carved in sandal wood, the most precious material for sculpture. Although small, the statue has its own characteristics and will awaken our deep interest. The small heads of Buddhas shown at the side of the crown, and the decorations worked exquisitely around the figure, are all evidently according to the T'ang tradition. The statue well combines the charm of delicate craftsmanship with the deep spiritual power of Kwannon; special attention is invited to the way in which the niceties of Sandalwood are availed of fully to express the appealing beauty of the smooth flesh of the body and the filminess of the drapery.

  The wooden statue of the Eleven-headed Kwannon (Fig. 53) of the Hokke-ji in Yamato, is an excellent specimen which developed on such a Chinese model as the Nine-headed Kwannon we have just described above. The most admirable finish shows Japanese native genius. The image is carved out of sandalwood and measures 3.2 feet in height.

  The Eleven-headed Kwannon is one of the manifold representations of Kwannon and was very popular among the Japanese. The three heads in front have a calm and benignant expression. The three on the left side suggest an angry expression, while the three on the right side show a canine tooth, the one at the back of the head indulging in malignant laughter. These ten heads are arranged about the central and larger head; and finally there is one on the top with the face of Buddha. The different expression of the minor faces are intended to symbolize all the different human minds, good and bad, which this Kwannon vows to deliver. Now, in this example of Kwannon, such minor faces are arranged most cleverly as parts of his crown, and no discord will be noticed with the magnificent and dignified expression of the main face, which sums up all the different expressions manifested on the minor faces, for the deliverance of humanity. The form of the body is also excellent and is most harmonious with the noble beauty of the main face. It is slightly inclined and rests on the left leg; the free right arm, which is exceptionally long at the right side, gives a beautiful effect to the pose of the body. The folds of drapery are carved rather sharply and deeply, very unlike those graceful curves of the Tempyo sculpture. Such was, however, the characteristic technique of drapery-folds in the Heian Period, Slight coloring is given only to the hair, eyelids, and lips, and the rest is left uncolored to show the beautiful finish of plain wood. This statue of the Eleven-headed Kwannon is surely one of the most excellent works produced at the height of this period.

  Fig. 54. Nyoirin Kwannon (N.T.)

  Kwanshin-ji, Kawachi

  An example of a masterpiece statue in wood, representing Nyoirinkwannon (Fig. 54), is preserved in the Kwanshin-ji monastery in Kawachi, Settsu province. It measures 3.9 feet in height, and is colored. He is sitting with the right knee uppermost and has six arms. The first right hand supports the cheek, the posture signifying meditation on the deliverance of humanity. The second hand holds the jewel which grants every wish. The third right hand holds a rosary, which is the emblem of power to deliver. The first left hand rests on a symbolic representation of a mountain, implying the salvation of ferocious spirits by the virtue of firmness. The second left hand has a lotus which purifies mankind of depravity. The third hand has a wheel which stands for the law of Buddha that governs the cosmos and enlightens all beings. The work is marvellously successful in rendering the mystic power of the Bodhisattva. It has gracefulness of form and expression, and in spite of the six arms does not give any feeling of grotesqueness. Such an effect can be attained only by a master hand.

  Having seen enough of the excellent examples of the lovely and benignant figures of Kwannon, let us now turn our minds to examining some Buddhist figures which are more formidable in aspect. They were likewise intended to deliver humanity from its sin and wickedness. Among them Fudō or Achala was most popular.

  One of the masterpieces, perhaps the best of all statues of Fudō which were produced in this period, is that of the Shōchi-in temple, now placed on view in the Reihō-kwan Museum on Mount Kōya. (Fig. 55) He is shown in a sitting posture, made of wood, and colored red which is now much effaced. This statue measures about 3 feet in height and has a formidable and somewhat ugly appearance. He holds a sword in his right hand and a rope in his left. He is regarded as a partial incarnation of the Dainichi Buddha or the Great Illuminator. According to the sutra, Fudō should be a fat person, and rather ugly and repelling in appearance, modeled after the youthful slaves of India. The reason why Fudō was obliged to assume so low a form of humanity is that he had taken his oath to deliver people as their servant. The sword in the right hand signifies that he has power to cut off the three most wicked passions of man, as well as to despatch all man's spiritual enemies. The rope indicates that he will bind and bring to the place of enlightenment all who are too prejudiced to hear the teaching of Buddha. In our figure of Fudō all such traditions are carved excellently. In most cases he is represented as sitting or standing on a rock among flames but here the flames seem to have been lost.

  Fig. 55. Fudō (N.T.)

  Reihō-kwan Museum, Mt. Kōya

  Before this period, stone was rarely used in making statues and almost no specimen exists today. But for the first time in this period rock-cut images developed, of which some important examples still remain. In the Six Dynasties of China, there were cave temples. They were mostly grottos, each with a narrow entrance passage, signifying the direct influence of Indian cave temples like Ajanta. This custom, however, did not reach Japan because Japan had no rocky mount suitable for such a purpose. But in the T'ang Dynasty a new style came into fashion, in which Buddhist images were carved out on the open Cliffs of living rock and sheltered by a wooden construction. It was introduced into Japan and practised here and there in local districts where it was possible to do it. Examples of such rock-cut images are most numerous in the province of Bungo in Kyushu Island.

  In Fig. 56 we have reproduced the head of a colossal figure of Buddha, which is one of many fine examples remaining still at Fukada, near the Usuki station of the same province. The worksmanship is excellent and its countenance is gracious.

  Fig. 56. Rock-cut Buddhist Image

  Usuki, Bungo

  4. INDUSTRIAL ARTS

  Very few objects illustrative of the industrial arts of this period remain, and they are too insufficient to give a comprehensive idea of the general condition of the lesser arts produced in the age. These few examples are all Buddhist things.

  Just as Buddhist temples have their own symbolism through which to explain their character to people, so Buddhist monks carry certain symbols, wear their own particular costumes, and officiate at services in order to impress the people with their existence and power. In the esoteric Buddhism of the Heian Period such symbols and behavior of priests were mystic and had deep meaning to the faithful.

  In the Iyadani-ji temple of Kagawa prefecture is a unique example of a bell with a handle (Fig. 57) which is traditionally believed to have been brought back by the priest Kōbō Daishi (Kūkai) from China during the last days of the T'ang Dynasty.It is made of gilt-bronze; around its body are cast Deva Kings in relief and the handle is in the shape of a five pointed vajra. In officiating at a service, a high priest tinkled the bell with his hand to remind the people of his existence and to concentrate their minds on Buddha.

  Fig. 57. Bell with F
ive Pointed Vajra (N.T.)

  Iyadani-ji, Sanuki

  In the Tōdai-ji monastery of Nara is preserved a Buddhist wand called nyo-i. (Fig. 58) This is a rare example of minor art produced in this period. It is supposed to have been used by the priest Shōbō when he was expounding Buddhist sutras towards the end of the ninth century. It is made of semi-translucent tortoise shell, smoothly polished. It has silver appliqué of five lions on the head and a vajra on the handle. The wand is highly prized, not only for its tradition but also for its excellent workmanship. Also in the Daigoji, Kyoto, is preserved another specimen of Buddhist wand from the same age, which is made of gilt-bronze.

  The famous sutra-case (Fig. 59) of the Ninna-ji in Kyoto is a rare specimen that shows the excellent lacquer work of this period. This was originally made to keep thirty volumes of sutras of the Shingon sect brought from China by the priest Kūkai. The sutra-case is lacquered black and decorated with a gold and silver design. The design represents sacred flowers and birds in the togidasahi gold lacquer. It consists of designs having gold and silver dust on the surface that has first been prepared with lacquer, then covered again with lacquer, and then finally polished. The technical dexterity reaches here a very high standard of elegance. While still retaining the force of the Nara style, it already brings in a new style to be developed later in the Fujiwara Period.

  Fig. 58. Nyo-i (N.T.)

  Tōdia-ji, Nara

  5. ARCHITECTURE

  The important and epoch-making events in the architectural development of this period were the erection of a new court at Kyoto on a gigantic scale and the remarkable changes in the styles of Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines.

  The new palace buildings in Kyoto were almost completed in 805. Within the twelve gateways there were the Imperial residence, the ceremonial hall, the banqueting hall, drill hall, and the hall for the transaction of state affairs.

  Of these buildings, the ceremonial hall had the most magnificent architecture. It consisted of the main building, called Dai-goku-den, two pavilions called the Seiryū and the Byakko, the terrace called Ryūbidan, twelve subordinate buildings, a gate, and open corridors. They were uniformly painted red, rooted with blue tiles, and paved. Most of them were surmounted with hipped roofs and all the ridges were decorated with fish-shaped finials. All the state ceremonies of greatest importance were held in this hall. In short, all the court buildings were modeled on the T'ang System, modified to satisfy the Japanese taste. The Imperial residence consisted of seventeen buildings, including the Shishinden (ceremonial hall) and seven other minor buildings, enclosed by a wall with twelve gateways. The buildings stood apart and were connected with one another by open corridors. Such an arrangement of buildings is a purely Chinese fashion; from it, the type called shinden-zukuri seems to have taken its rise.

  Fig. 59. Gold Lacquer Sutra-case (N.T.)

  Ninna-ii, Kyoto

  The original palace buildings are lost now, but the buildings reproduced according to their ancient style have stood on the same site from 1856. They are very fascinating for their noble simplicity.

  The Buddhist architecture, as we have said already, made a great change in this period. The change was brought in by the new sects, Tendai and Shingon. The esoteric minds of both sects loved to come more closely into touch with nature and they preferred to build their monasteries on mountains rather than on level ground. The Tendai sect had its main monastery erecteced on the summit of Mount Hiei, while the Shingon sect erected its head monastery in the virgin forest of Mount Kōya. Thus, as the monasteries of the Tendai and Shingon sects were built on the summits of thickly wooded mountains, space did not allow of maintaining the rigid symmetry that had been a characteristic feature of the temples in the Nara Period. Therefore the marked difference from the former period consisted mostly in the arrangement of the buildings and in the interior decoration.

  However, these original monastery buildings that once crowned the virgin soil of Mount Hiei and Mount Kōya have disappeared many years ago, and the present buildings were erected in a much later age.But we may still see there the lofty and noble nature which once enveloped the original monasteries.

  The only two buildings remaining from the Heian Period are to be seen in the Muro-o-ji monastery in Yamato. They are the stupa and the Kondo, or Golden Hall.

  Fig. 60. Five-storied Stupa (N.T.)

  Muro-o-ji, Yamato

  The stupa is five-storied and rather small, measuring 2.4 meters square and 16 meters in height. (Fig. 60) Each side of the square is made up of three spans, and the pillars have entasis. The slight slope of each roof and the horizontal members of the balustrade at each story redeem the height and give a restful feeling. The spire capping the tower has a jar and canopy in place of the suien finial. Altogether, the proportions have an effect of lightness, unlike the strong and massive stupas of the Nara Period.

  In esoteric Buddhism the stupa has an especially important meaning. It signifies all the laws of the universe. Its paramount importance is that in its external aspect it soars to heaven high above other buildings and gives to the beholder a feeling of uplift.

  In Shinto architecture, for the first time in this period, there was a great change and a considerable Buddhist element was introduced into its construction.

  CHAPTER 6

  The Art Of The Court Life: The Fijiwara Period 849-1185 A.D.

  1. GENERAL SURVEY

  The Fujiwara Period, opening with the year 894 when intercourse with China was interrupted, and closing in 1185 when the Taira family perished, covers two hundred and ninety-two years. During this period the nationalizing spirit developed, and the continental culture imported in the former three centuries was for the first time fully assimilated to express the tastes and ideas of the Japanese.

  In Kyoto the centralized government and aristocratic oligarchy became firmly established; and the head of the Fujiwara family came to play the most important role in the court and government.

  Many Empresses and Princesses had come from the Fujiwara family through many generations since the time of their ancestor Kamatari, and some Emperors were dethroned in order to make way for the young sons of Imperial ladies. The Fujiwara were the regents while these Emperors were still too young to rule, and even when the Emperors reached manhood they still occupied the highest position in the court. Moreover, as most of the Emperors of this period were born and brought up in the Fujiwara family, some of the residences of the Fujiwara were like detached palaces of Emperors. The Emperors had nothing to do with politics, and were looked upon only as puppets of the Fujiwara. The most powerful member of the Fujiwara family was Michinaga, who had four of his daughters made Empresses, and one a princess; and, as his three grandsons by those daughters became Emperors, he held the political control in his hands for more than thirty years, exceeding even the sovereigns in power and wealth. In his later days he built a Buddhist temple called Hōjō-ji, which showed his wealth and extravagance most clearly, and which brought about improvement in the artistic and industrial world.

  The members of the Fujiwara family monopolized not only the highest positions but also the richest lands in all the country. They poured out their money unstintedly for architecture, and for landscape gardening; for feasts and festivals, luxurious dresses, dances and music, and such entertainments as poetical contests, concerts, games of football, and checkers.

  In literature, there were produced many kinds of prose writings, such as stories, diaries, historical narratives, accounts of travel, and other miscellaneous works, together with poems. Many men and women displayed freely their genius and talent. Among the female writers, Murasaki Shikibu and Seishō Nagon were most famous, and their works have enjoyed the admiration of all ages. As these writers and poets were all people of high rank their literary works were characterized by polished and fluent wording and refined and delicate thought. From them one can judge the inclination of contemporary arts and industries.

  Environed by such circumstances, peopl
e of rank generally lacked spirit, and were mindful of etiquette and ceremonies; they all abhorred illness, misfortune, or death, and clung desperately to life and comfort. So, in religious feeling, the more mystical and philosophical doctrine of the Tendai and Shingon sects was overlooked, and superficial teachings and showy ceremonies swayed the minds of the people.

  In such an atmosphere the faith in Amida took hold of those who were pious. The doctrine of Amida was expounded most forcibly by the priest, Genshin, 942-1017, better known by the name of Eshin Sōzu, who witnessed the heyday of the Fujiwara Period and felt strongly the peoples need of deep religious inspiration.

  It is said also that he inaugurated a ritual procession of priests through the valley of Mount Hiei. They were gorgeously attired, as if forming a pageant.

  Mount Hiei stands between Kyoto and Lake Biwa. In the morning the boundless light of the sun comes to the city of Kyoto from Mount Hiei; while on the other side of Hiei, Lake Biwa shows its extensive mirror framed all around by beautifully undulating ranges of misty hills and mountains. In the morning the light comes from the east over those ranges of hills, sending golden streams on the living waters of the lake. When the evening comes after the day's work is over, the sun sheds its magnificent light on the sacred summit of Hiei. In the time of our priest Eshin in the tenth century, it was just the same as it is now. He associated his doctrine of Amida with this exceptional landscape beauty and taught men to see and hear what Amida was saying to them through that wonderful beauty of landscape.