A History of Japanese Art

by Noritake Tsuda

  8. RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE

  In the Muromachi Period (1334-1573), a remarkable new development was made in residential architecture in combination with the art of gardening. Such development will be seen in the two greatest examples remaining in Kyoto. The one is the Kinkaku or “Golden Pavilion” of the Rokuon-ji monastery, and the other is the Ginkaku or “Silver Pavilion” of the Jishō-ji monastery.

  In the Golden Pavilion and its garden we see certain traces of the old style of residence, known by the name of shinden-zukuri, which developed in the Fujiwara Period, while in the Silver Pavilion we find an entirely new style of residential architecture, which is called shoin-zukuri The full development of this shoin-zukuri architecture was made in the Momoyama and Yedo periods that followed the Muromachi Period.

  Briefly speaking, the shoin-zukuri architecture is characterized by the existence of a low elevated room, or jōdan-no-ma, in which are found an alcove, or toko-no-ma, an ornamental shelf, and the desk ledge called shoin-gamae. The rooms are divided by sliding screens on which are generally painted pictures in black and white. The front, left, and right sides of the rooms usually open into the garden by sliding screens pasted over with transparent paper on the upper half, and panelled on the lower half, or by windows, all allowing the light to be diffused into the rooms and to reveal the beautiful sight of the gardens when the screens are slid back. In the alcove is hung a picture, in front of which is set an incense burner and a flower vase. The building as a whole seems to have been carefully planned to form an integral part of the garden rather than to have the garden an integral part of the architecture.

  This style of architecture is much influenced by the philosophy of Zen Buddhism and the tea-cult, in which rusticity and simplicity were highly appreciated. With certain modifications its essentials still survive in the present-day residential architecture of pure Japanese style.

  9. THE ART OF GARDENING

  Although gardens were built very early in the history of Japan, there remains no complete example older than the Muromachi Period.

  According to a record in the Nihon-shoki or the Chronicles of Japan, the house of Sogano Umako, the Premier in the reign of the Emperor Suiko (592-628), had a small pond dug in the courtyard, in the middle of which was a little island. This garden might be taken as an example of the earliest type of Japanese gardens.

  In the Nara Period wild trees and flowers, such as cherry trees, plum trees, azaleas, iris, and other grasses were transplanted to gardens for the appreciation of their natural beauty. In the Manyōshū and the Kwaifusō, collections of poems composed in the Nara Period, we find some poems referring to the natural beauty of such gardens in the Nara Period.

  Such gardens as these seem to have continued to be laid out in much later ages. There are many illustrations of them in picture scrolls painted in the Kamakura Period to illustrate the life of the people. In Fig. 117, we have reproduced an example from a picture scroll called Matsuzaki Tenjin Engi, painted in the year 1311. A room opens on a fine rustic garden, to which water is drawn through a wooden gutter, making a stream running along small hills where ducks play at the margin of the water.

  Fig. 117. Ancient Garden Illustrated in the Matsuzaki Tenjin Engi (N.T.)

  On the other hand, however, in the Fujiwara Period a definite style of garden was crystallized. This was called shinden-shiki garden, because it developed in connection with the dwelling houses of the Fujiwara nobles, which were called shinden-zukuri, or “bed-chamber” style of architecture.

  In the shinden-zukuri garden there is a large pond laid out in front of the main building, facing the sunny south where plants thrive best with plenty of light and warmth. An island was built in the middle of the pond; a highly curved bridge was spanned from the north side of the island, and a flat bridge from the opposite side. The island was spacious enough to have a temporary pavilion where music and dance might be performed in the case of a grand fete. On the southern shore of the pond was an artificial hill. At each side of the pond stood a pavilion, facing the pond, one called izumi-dono and the other tsuri-dono; both were connected by a corridor with a larger building erected on either side of the main hall. Between the intervals of various buildings ran a narrow stream, forming here and there a pretty landscape scene with flowers and tiny plants transplanted from mountains or plains, and finally reaching to the pond.

  In a book called Sakutei-ki compiled in the Kamakura Period is described the general principle of the Japanese gardens built before the Muromachi Period. The book deals principally with ponds, waterfalls, water led into gardens, rocks, trees, and islands.

  As to ponds, the book gives important instructions. Ponds should be shallow and ducks be allowed to swim on the water, for the sake of ease and comfort to the host. The water should be led in from the east and let go out from the west so that all impurities may be carried off.

  As to rock work in connection with ponds or streams, it is explained how to imitate an ocean, a large river, a mountain stream, or marshy land. Indeed, the liveliest imagination is used in telling rock faddists how to imitate various phases of nature.

  As to the shape of islands, ten different types are mentioned. Among others, are a hill island, a field island, a wood island, a cloud-form island, a “fog-shaped” island, and a delta-shaped island. A short description is given of how to construct all these different styles. For example, to get a hill island, an undulating hill is to be built up in the midst of a pond, on which evergreen trees are to be densely planted; a sandy beach is to be made in front, and then rocks are to be erected on the beach as well as at the skirt of the hill. In order to have beautiful waterfalls in great variety, a number of interesting instructions are given of the shape of the rocks to be used in their construction. It is said that if a waterfall be made facing the moon, the silver light of the moon may be reflected over the falling water on a moonlight night. As to the virtue of trees, the book teaches that the trees were believed to be a mystic ladder leading to heaven. When Buddha taught his peoples, he sat under a tree. When gods descended from heaven they took their way through trees. Therefore the planting should be considered carefully in regard to the human dwelling. With such opinions, instructions are given regarding different kinds of trees and their locations in gardens.

  After all, in the gardens constructed before the Muromachi Period, appreciation of the value of the natural beauty, consisting mainly of ponds, hills, rocks, trees, and waters, was stressed most.

  At the beginning of the Muromachi Period, the Ashikaga Shoguns and their generals lived in Kyoto and longed After the flowery life of court nobles of the Fujiwara Period. Therefore, their residential buildings and gardens had much resemblance to those of the shinden-zukuri style of architecture and the shinden-shiki style of garden, both prospering in the Fujiwara Period.

  The most famous of the kind were the palatial buildings erected by the Ashikaga shogun Yoshimitsu at Muromachi in Kyoto, which was called Hana-no-gosho, or Palace of Flowers, and his villa at Kitayama in a suburb of Kyoto. The villa, with its Golden Pavilion, still remains.

  However, the taste and characteristics peculiar to the residential architecture of the Muromachi Period, began to express themselves when the eighth Shogun, Ashikaga Yoshimasa, built his retiring residence at Higashi-yama.

  The art of gardening of this period owes much to the direction of Zen priests, such as Musō or Sō-ami. Under such circumstances it was greatly influenced by the doctrine of Zen Buddhism. In the garden of the Silver Pavilion of Kyoto, we find an epoch-making change that had never developed before. It is very different from that of the shinden-shiki style of garden. In the garden of shinden-shiki style decorated boats floated on the pond. However, the garden of this style is planned for one to appreciate its natural beauty by walking quietly around in the garden. Therefore this style of garden is called kaiyū-shiki garden, which means literally “stroll garden.”

  Fig. 118. The Tenryū-ji Garden

  Arashiyama, Kyoto />
  There are two other famous examples of a similar type of garden laid out in the Muromachi Period; one is at the Tenryuji monastery, and the other in the Saihō-ji monastery, both in the suburbs of Kyoto.

  There was another style of garden, called hira-sansui or kare-sansui; the former means literally a level garden; and the latter, a landscape garden with dry stream-basin. Both have a similar style. This style of garden became much smaller and more symbolic and similar in taste to the contemporary landscape paintings in black and white. In the Ryūan-ji temple and also in the Daisen-in temple, we can find the most representative gardens of this style, both remaining in good preservation from the Muromachi Period.

  We shall now describe some important examples of gardens laid out in the Muromachi Period.

  The Tenryū-ji garden (Fig. 118) is laid out at the Tenryū-ji monastery in a suburb of Kyoto, a short walk from the terminus of the Arashiyama tram line. This monastery was erected for the Emperor GoDaigo by Ashikaga Takauji, the first Shogun of the Ashikaga family. The buildings and the garden were constructed under the directorship of the first abbot, Musō Kokushi, who was an able expert in the art of gardening. The original buildings were lost many years ago, and now only the garden remains. It is in almost its original condition, and is one of the best examples of the “stroll garden.” This garden is a little older than the Ginkaku-ji garden. It is formed at the foot of a hill beautifully groved. A pond lies at the skirt of the hill, and a stone bridge is spanned across to a miniature island. A number of rocks with fantastic shapes are arranged at the edge of the pond and there are a few in the water. A waterfall flows down from the hill. Although a path leads round the edge of the pond, the garden is mainly intended to be appreciated from the interior of the abbot's dwelling.

  The Saihō-ji garden (Fig. 119) is situated on the southern skirt of Mount Arashiyama in a suburb of Kyoto, and can be reached easily by a tram car from Kyoto. The Saihō-ji monastery has a long history, but the garden was laid out at the beginning of the Muromachi Period, when the priest Muso Kokushi re-erected the buildings of this monastery. The garden is also a rare example of the stroll garden built at the beginning of the Muromachi Period. The heart of the garden is made by the pond called Ōgon-chi, or Golden pond, which is dug in a level space at the foot of a hill. In the pond have been made two or three little wooded islands, to which extend bridges covered with earth. At the edges of the pond and also in the water as usual, there are rocks. Surrounding it evergreen trees have been planted, and the path goes round under the trees along the pond. The poetic atmosphere of a wild wood and the quiet feeling of still water are effected most harmoniously by the ingenious art of the gardener. At present the most characteristic feature of the garden is the moss all over the ground under the trees throughout the garden. The soft verdure of the delicate moss, which is said to have more than twenty varieties, makes different patterns wrought only by nature. Because of this, the monastery gets the name Koke-dera, meaning “the Temple of Moss.” At a side of the pond stands a tiny tea-house, which was re-erected at the beginning of the seventeenth century, about two centuries and a half after the original one, which was made with the garden itself.

  Fig. 119. Saihō-ji Garden

  Arashiyama, Kyoto

  Fig. 120. Ryūan-ji Garden

  Ryūan-ji, Kyoto

  The Ryūan-ji garden (Fig. 120) is in the Ryūan-ji temple situated at the southwest side of a historical hill called Kinugasa-yama, a short distance from the Ryūan-ji stop of the Arashiyama tram car line from Kyoto. This temple, belonging to the Zen sect, was founded by a general called Hosokawa Katsumoto, who served the Shogun Yoshimasa during the Bummei Era (1469-1486). The founder lived here in his later years, and the garden was made for his parlour. But now, of the original, only the garden of the Ryūan-ji vicarage remains.

  The garden is a unique example of the landscape gardens with dry stream-basins designed in the Muromachi Period. The plan has an oblong shape of small size, 31 meters by 15 meters, facing the south, and on the front and west side it has low walls measuring only 2 meters in height. Outside the walls is a pine grove. The whole ground of the garden is flat and white-sanded. On the sanded ground are fifteen rocks, laid in fives, threes, and twos, grouped at five places. The arrangement of rocks is very skilful, and any change from the original location would destroy the beautiful harmony. Their space composition is really wonderful. There is nothing except white sand and rocks, which seem like rock islets in a spacious stream of water. No tree, no flower, no grass, and no water will be seen in the garden. This is one of the greatest works of imagination in the art of gardening.

  However, with this alone the garden would not be complete. It is designed to give a distant landscape view beyond the wall through the branches of the pine trees outside the wall. The pine trees were much smaller in the time when the garden was originally made and a fuller sight of distant landscape scenery was obtainable from the interior. The important meaning of this garden lies in enjoying an extensive natural scenery as a background of the simplest level garden. And this style of garden had much influence on the art of gardening in later ages.

  The Daisen-in garden (Fig. 121) is in the precincts of the Daitoku-ji monastery, in the northwest suburb of Kyoto. This is a unique example of rock garden-ing built in the later Muromachi Period. It is laid out in a small plot of land along the verandahs of the vicarage of the Daisen-in, which is also a unique kind of architecture erected in the same period. Tis is also called kare sansui, or landscape garden with dry stream-basin, but its construction is entirely different from that of the Ryūanji vicarage that we have just described. Here the building up of rock work is very complicated, so as to imitate a waterfall and mountain brook in the arrangement of a number of differently shaped rocks. The garden is right-angled along the east and north sides of the vicarage, and is screened with earthen walls from the outside. There is an imitation waterfall at the northeast with upright rocks cleverly combined and shaded with camellia trees; a suggestion of water running out from here to the left and right along the lines of both verandahs is given by white sand spread on the basin. Here and there is a slab bridge. A mountain and a cliff are also skilfully represented with fantastic shapes and cleavages. Every kind of skill and care is exhausted to bring out the feeling of the great beauty of nature in the placing of different kinds of rocks, as if a master painter were depicting a great landscape with black ink on paper. Nowhere else will there be found such an achievement of imaginative rock gardening.

  Fig. 121. Daisen-in Garden

  Daitoku-ji, Kyoto

  CHAPTER 9

  A Renaissance Of Art: The Momoyama Period 1574-1614 A.D.

  1. GENERAL SURVEY

  The period of Momoyama, or Peach Hill, was the shortest in Japanese history. It was a period of about forty years from the late sixteenth to the early seventeenth century, corresponding to the later High Renaissance in Europe. However, the art of this period extended its influence and played an important role in the development of Japanese culture.

  The century preceding this period was the darkest age in the history of Japan. Prolonged civil wars were fought between the partisans of the rival pretenders to the seat of the Shogun, and the whole country was in a state of anarchy.

  Japan had then to emerge from its chaotic condition and secure political unification. The first man who took up this task was Oda Nobunaga. He was a daring captain who broke away from the past and made himself the harbinger of the new age. However, Nobunaga, in the tenth year of Tenshō, 1582, met untimely death at the hands of a traitor, and left his work unfinished. He was swiftly revenged by his lieutenant Toyotomi Hideyoshi. After that Hideyoshi became the most prominent figure in Japan and in ten years achieved the unification of the nation.

  After Hideyoshi had restored peace, he repaired the palace buildings and restored the ruins of the capital of Kyoto. At the same time he began to erect the castle of Osaka, the Jura-kudai mansion at Kyoto, and the castle of Fushimi
. Meanwhile he sent his army to Korea with the ambition of subjugating Korea, China, and all the Orient. He encouraged poetry, drama, tea-ceremony, and other arts. The great tea-ceremony function held by him at Kitano, the Emperor’s visit to his Jura-kudai mansion with a full retinue, and his flower-viewing picnic at Daigo, astounded the whole country by their mighty splendor. Moreover, the expedition into Korea and the intercourse with Portuguese and Spaniards, contained in themselves the evidence of his spirit of enterprise.

  The art of the Momoyama Period was indeed created by the taste and lofty imagination of Hideyoshi. His desired impression of unity and grandeur, as well as his joy in conquering obstacles, were expressed in the fine buildings erected at his orders in Osaka, Fushimi, and Kyoto. Everything was of a colossal style, with large proportions and majestic regularity which produced an imposing effect.

  The art developed under this atmosphere created by Hideyoshi was characterized by a grand scale, by a magnificence of form, and brightness of colors. Its grandeur was manifested most eloquently in both architectural and decorative arts, by the best artists of his age. The sculpture developed as architectural ornamentation. Painting made remarkable development as interior decoration of buildings, and as grand pictures in rich colors which were usually painted on walls and sliding screens at the partitions of rooms. Fine examples of such architecture and paintings may still be found in some temples in Kyoto and its vicinity.