The Chinese Typewriter

by Thomas Mullaney

  24 Shenbao (May 2, 1924), 21. For information on Song Mingde, see SMA Q235-1-1875 (April 6, 1933), 18–20.

  25 Shu, “Thoughts While Researching a Typewriter for China,” 156.

  26 Ibid.

  27 Ibid.

  28 For example, see “Preparations for a Chinese Typewriting Class (Chouban Huawen daziji xunlianban) [籌辦華文打字機訓練班],” Henan jiaoyu (Henan Education) [河南教育] 1, no. 6 (1928): 4.

  29 As Gail Hershatter notes, we still know relatively little about the world of Republican-era professional women, a notable exception being the 1999 study by Wang Zheng. See Gail Hershatter, Women in China’s Long Twentieth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); and Wang Zheng, Women in the Chinese Enlightenment: Oral and Textual Histories (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).

  30 Christopher Keep, “The Cultural Work of the Type-Writer Girl,” Victorian Studies 40, no. 3 (Spring 1997): 405.

  31 Communication between Tianjin Municipal Government Department of Education (Tianjin shi zhengfu jiaoyuju) [天津市政府教育局] and the International Typing Institute (Guoji dazi chuanxisuo) [國際打字傳習所], TMA J110-1-838 (July 6, 1946), 1–15; Communication between Tianjin Municipal Government Department of Education (Tianjin shi zhengfu jiaoyuju) [天津市政府教育局] and Junde Chinese Typing Institute (Junde Huawen dazi zhiye buxi xuexiao) [峻德華文打字職業補習學校], TMA J110-1-808 (March 5, 1948), 1–12; “Beijing Baoshan and Guangde Chinese Typing Supplementary Schools (Beijing shi sili Baoshan, Guangde Huawen dazi buxi xuexiao guanyu xuexiao tianban qiyong qianji baosong li’an biao jiaozhiyuan lüli biao he xuesheng mingji chengji biao chengwen ji shi jiaoyuju de zhiling (fu: gaixiao jianzhang, zhaosheng jianzhang he xuesheng chengji biao) [北京市私立寶善、廣德華文打字補習學校關於學校天辦啟用鈐記報送立案表教職員履歷表和學生名籍成績表呈文及市教育局的指令(附:該校簡章、招生簡章和學生成績表],” BMA J004-002-00579 (July 1, 1938); “Regarding the Foundation of the Guangdewen Typing Supplementary School in Beiping (Guanyu chuangban Beiping shi sili Guangdewen dazi buxi xueshe de chengwen ji gai she jianzhang deng yiji shehui ju de piwen) [關於創辦北平市私立廣德文打字補習學社的呈文及該社簡章等以及社會局的批文],” BMA J002-003-00754 (May 1, 1938); “Curriculum Vitae of Teaching Staff and Student Roster of the Private Yucai Chinese Typing Vocational Supplementary School in Beiping (Beiping shi sili Yucai Huawen dazike zhiye buxi xuexiao zhijiaoyuan lüli biao, xuesheng mingji biao) [北平市私立育才華文打字科職業補習學校職教員履歷表、學生名籍表],” BMA J004-002-00662 (July 31, 1939); “Petition Submitted by the Private Yadong Japanese-Chinese Typing Supplementary School of Beijing to the Beijing Special Municipality Bureau of Education Regarding Inspection of Student Grading List, Curriculum Plan, and Teaching Hours for the Regular-Speed Division of the Sixteenth Term, and the Order Received in Response from the Bureau of Education (Beijing shi sili Yadong Ri Huawen dazi buxi xuexiao guanyu di’shiliu qi putong sucheng ge zu xuesheng chengjibiao, kecheng yuji ji shouke shi shu qing jianhe gei Beijing tebieshi jiaoyuju de cheng yiji jiaoyuju de zhiling) [北京市私立亞東日華文打字補習學校關於第十六期普通速成各組學生成績表、課程預計及授課時數請鑒核給北京特別市教育局的呈以及教育局的指令],” BMA J004-002-01022 (January 31, 1943); Private Yadong Japanese-Chinese Typing Supplementary School of Beijing Student Roster (Beijing shi sili Yadong Ri Hua wen dazi buxi xuexiao xuesheng mingji biao) [北京市私立亞東日華文打字補習學校學生名籍表], BMA J004-002-01022 (November 7, 1942); Private Shucheng Typing Vocational Supplementary School of Beijing Student Roster (Beijing shi sili shucheng dazike zhiye buxi xuexiao xuesheng mingji biao) [北京市私立樹成打字科職業補習學校學生名籍表], BMA J004-002-01091 (March 23, 1942); Private Yanjing Chinese Typing Supplementary School of Beijing Student Roster (Beijing sili Yanjing Huawen dazi buxi xuexiao xuesheng mingji biao) [北京私立燕京華文打字補習學校學生名籍表], BMA J004-001-00805 (November 1, 1946); SMA R48-1-287; Tianjin Municipality Eighth Educational District Mass Education Office Eighth Term Chinese Typing Accelerated Class Graduation Name List (Tianjin shili di’ba shejiaoqu minzhong jiaoyuguan di’ba qi Huawen dazi suchengban biye xuesheng mingce) [天津市立第八社教區民眾教育館第八期華文打字速成班畢業學生名冊], TMA J110-3-740 (November 25, 1948), 1–2; “Regulations of the Commercial Typing and Shorthand Training Institute (Shangye dazi suji chuanxisuo jianzhang) [商業打字速記傳習所簡章],” SMA Q235-1-1844 (June 1932), 49–56; SMA Q235-1-1871.

  32 “Mr. Hui’s Chinese-English Typing Institute (Hui shi Hua Ying wen dazi zhuan­xiao) [惠氏華英打字專校],” SMA Q235-1-1847 (1932), 26–49.

  33 “Victory and Success Typing Academy (Jiecheng dazi chuanxisuo) [捷成打字傳習所],” SMA Q235-1-1848 (1933), 50–70.

  34 The principal of the institute was Zhu Hongjuan, a Shanghai resident born around 1908, under whose direction worked a staff of five instructors—two men and three women. Zhu Fei, a young woman of nineteen years, born around 1925, and potentially the younger sister of Zhu Hongjuan, served as an instructor at the main campus. Zhang Guoliang, also at the main campus, was born around 1900. By 1944, Huanqiu boasted an enrollment of over 300 students, prompting the school to expand later to a second location at 652 Taishan Road. See memo from Zhu Hongjuan [朱鴻雋], principal of the Huanqiu Typing Academy of Shanghai to a Mr. Lin [林], Shanghai Special Municipality education bureau chief. SMA R48-1-287 (October 27, 1944), 1–11.

  35 “Contacts for School Graduates Where Currently Employed (Benxiao lijie biye­sheng fuwu tongxun lu) [本校歷屆畢業生服務通訊錄],” SMA Q235-3-503 (n.d.), 6–8.

  36 “Preparations for a Chinese Typewriting Class (Chouban Huawen daziji xunlianban) [籌辦華文打字機訓練班],” Henan Education (Henan jiaoyu) [河南教育] 1, no. 6 (1928): 4.

  37 “Contacts for School Graduates Where Currently Employed,” 6–8.

  38 “Chinese Typing Institute Founded in Shenyang by Sun Qishan (Zai Shen chuangli Huawen dazi lianxisuo zhi Sun Qishan jun) [在瀋創立華文打字練習所之孫岐山君],” Great Asia Pictorial (Daya huabao) [大亞畫報] 244 (August 10, 1930): 2; “Chinese-English Typing Institute Girls’ Chinese Typing Class Beginning of the Year Cere­mony Photo (Hua-Ying dazi chuanxisuo nüzi Huawen daziban shiyeshi sheying) [華英打字傳習所女子華文打字班始業式攝影],” Chenbao Weekly Pictorial (Chenbao xingqi huabao) [晨報星期畫報] 2, no. 95 (1927): 2; “Female Student in the Beiping Chinese-English Typewriting Institute Chinese Accelerated Class (Beiping Hua-Ying daziji chuanxisuo Huawen suchengban nüsheng) [北平華英打字傳習所華文速成班女生],” Eastern Times Photo Supplement (Tuhua shibao) [圖畫時報] 517 (December 2, 1928), front page; Photograph of Female Students of the Beijing Hua-Ying Typing Institute (Beijing Hua-Ying dazi chuanxisuo), Chenbao Weekly Pictorial (Chenbao xingqi huabao) [晨報星期畫報] 2, no. 100 (1927): 2; “Ms. Zhang Rongxiao of the Chinese-English Typing Institute (Hua-Ying dazi xuexiao Zhang Rongxiao nüshi) [華英打字學校張蓉孝女士],” The Angel Pictorial, The Most Beautiful and Cheerful Pictorial in North China (Anqi’er) [安琪儿] 3, no. 1 (1929): 1.

  39 “Photograph of Chinese Vocational School Student Ye Shuyi Practicing on the Chinese Typewriter (Ye Shuyi nüshi Zhonghua zhiye xuexiao xuesheng lianxi Huawen daziji shi zhi ying) [葉舒綺女士中華職業學校學生練習華文打字機時之影],” Shibao [時報] 734 (1931): 3.

  40 Wang Xiaoting [王小亭], “The New Woman: A Glance at the Professional Women of Shanghai (Xin nüxing: Shanghai zhiye funü yi pie) [新女性:上海職業婦女一瞥],” Liangyou [良友] 120 (1936): 16.

  41 “Women Vie to Realize Their Promise (Funü qun zheng qu guangming) [婦女羣爭取光明],” Zhanwang [展望] 15 (1940): 18.

  42 “Graduates of Hwa-yin Type-writing School, Peiping (Beiping Hua Ying dazi xue­xiao di’wu jie biyesh
eng) [北平華英打字學校第五屆畢業生],” Shibao [時報] 620 (1930): 2. English and Chinese both in original.

  43 “Photograph of First Entering Class of Female Students at the Liaoning Chinese Typing Institute (Liaoning Huawen dazi lianxisuo di’yi qi nüxueyuan jiuxue jinian she­ying) [遼寧華文打字練習所第一期女學員就學之紀念攝影],” Great Asia Pictorial (Daya huabao) [大亞畫報] 244 (August 10, 1930): 2.

  44 Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900–1930 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 177–179.

  45 Margery W. Davies, Woman’s Place Is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers 1870–1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982), 54.

  46 Ibid., 53.

  47 Ibid.; Strom, Beyond the Typewriter.

  48 Roger Chartier, Forms and Meanings: Texts, Performances, and Audiences from Codex to Computer (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995), 19.

  49 For the late imperial period, noteworthy exceptions include Lucille Chia, Printing for Profit: The Commercial Publishers of Jianyang, Fujian (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2003); Kai-wing Chow, Publishing, Culture, and Power in Early Modern China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004); Cynthia Brokaw and Kai-wing Chow, eds., Printing and Book Culture in Late Imperial China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Joseph P. McDermott, A Social History of the Chinese Book: Books and Literati Culture in Late Imperial China (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2006); and Cynthia Brokaw and Christopher Reed, eds., From Woodblocks to the Internet: Chinese Publishing and Print Culture in Transition, circa 1800 to 2008 (Leiden: Brill, 2010).

  50 Teaching Materials for the Chinese Typewriter (Huawen dazi jiangyi) [華文打字講義], n.p., n.d. (produced pre-1928, circa 1917); Zhou Yukun, ed., Chinese Typing Method (Huawen dazi fa) (Nanjing: Bati yinshuasuo, 1934); Gan Chunquan and Xu Yizhi, eds., Essential Knowledge for Secretaries: Requirements of a Chinese Typist (Shuji fuwu bibei: yiming Huawen dazi wenshu yaojue) [書記服務必備一名華文打字文書要決] (Shanghai: Shanghai zhiye zhidaosuo, 1935); Tianjin Chinese Typewriter Company (Tianjin Zhonghua daziji gongsi) [天津中華打字機公司], ed., Chinese Typewriter Training Textbook, vol. 1 (Zhonghua daziji shixi keben—shangce) [中華打字機實習課本−上冊] (Tianjin: Donghua qiyin shuaju [東華齊印刷局], 1943); Tianjin Chinese Typewriter Company (Tianjin Zhonghua daziji gongsi) [天津中華打字機公司], ed., Chinese Typewriter Training Textbook, vol. 2 (Zhonghua daziji shixi keben—xiace) [中華打字機實習課本−下冊] (Tianjin: Donghua qiyin shuaju [東華齊印刷局], 1943); People’s Welfare Typewriter Manufacturing Company (Minsheng daziji zhizaochang), ed., Practice Textbook (Lianxi keben) (n.p.: n.p., c. 1940s).

  51 In this one example, we begin to gain a sense of how a typing drill worked. In this lesson, and through the introduction of roughly one hundred characters, the student began in the periphery of the tray bed, before sweeping into the center and into the periphery opposite. The subsequent characters drew the typist downward, before returning him or her to the core and beginning to trace out a kind of central, lexical “spine.” The next sequence of characters sent the typist briefly toward the upper right, before returning once again to the core, to supply further vertebrae. Over the subsequent ten characters, no time was to be spent along the edges—instead, seven further segments would be added to the central column, which by now was beginning to take shape in a robust, contiguous band toward the bottom of the tray. Three subsequent characters then brought the typist into the immediate neighborhood of this spine, followed by another ten that launched back out into the periphery, and across sweeping, looping distances. Secondary spines began to take shape, of course, one in the left periphery and the second immediately to the right of the robust core already formed. By the time the next ten characters had been typed, the peripheral spine had been consolidated further. Great sweeping motions were then mixed with tighter, jagged maneuvers. A new technique also appeared, in which new characters were introduced that themselves fell along the curves already traversed by the typist in earlier sequences. These newly introduced characters had already been “passed by,” as it were, falling perfectly along an arc first traced some number of steps previously. Shortly thereafter, another character along the same arc was introduced, and then another. By the conclusion of just the first one hundred or so characters, clear patterns were already evident. The typist had by now fully haled into existence the central spine of the tray bed, as well as warming up peripheral zones to the left and the upper right. Larger swaths of the tray bed remained cold and unvisited, particularly in the upper right and upper mid-left. And yet one could be sure that subsequent lessons, or perhaps on-the-job practice, would bring them into play later on.

  52 Zhou Houkun, Chinese Typing Method.

  53 Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976); Johanna Drucker, The Visible Word: Experimental Typography and Modern Art, 1909–1923 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).

  54 Fan Jiling, Fan’s Wanneng-Style Chinese Typewriter Practice Textbook (Fan shi wanneng shi Zhongwen daziji shixi fanben) [范氏萬能式中文打字機實習範本] (Hankou: Fan Research Institute Publishing House (Fan shi yanjiusuo yinhang) [范氏研究所印行], 1949), 10.

  55 Zhou Houkun, Chinese Typing Method. There was a deeply political and ideological dimension to this regimen as well, most notably in the student’s introduction to the “secondary usage character box.” In a typewriting instruction manual from the 1930s, at a time when the Chiang Kai-shek regime was launching military and propagandist campaigns against its Communist foes, the first lesson in the course had students reproduce the last will and testament of Sun Yat-sen—the deceased symbolic father of the 1911 revolution. The second guided them through the Manifesto of the Chinese Nationalist Party at the First National Congress (Zhongguo guomindang di’yi ci quanguo daibiao dahui xuanyan). And the third offered a short essay on revolution and liberation. Subsequent lessons moved students through a carefully crafted history of China itself, touching upon the Opium Wars, colonialism, the Boxer Uprising, the Three People’s Principles, the 1911 revolution, Yuan Shikai, the Warlord period, Manchukuo, labor, and poverty. Students were meant to repeat these lessons, learning them over and over and ingraining the particular lexical geometries of key political terms and names into their bodies. The first of these lessons was crafted such that the entire passage could be transcribed without the typist ever once needing to retrieve an “uncommon” character from the “secondary character box”—every character the student needed was on the tray bed. Further into one’s training, however, exercises began to introduce characters that forced one to travel, tweezers in hand, to the box of secondary or tertiary usage characters. Some of these were less common characters, while others served subtle political functions. Two of the earliest “secondary usage characters” to be introduced, for example, were none other than “yuan” (袁) and “kai” (凱) of “Yuan Shikai,” the great betrayer of the 1911 revolution who served as president of the Republic only to dissolve parliament, declare himself emperor, destabilize the fragile government, and leave a political vacuum after his untimely death that inaugurated China’s decade-long “warlord period.” His name had no place on the tray bed.

  56 “At Last—A Chinese Typewriter—A Remington,” Remington Export Review, n.d., 7. No date appears on the copy housed in the Hagley Museum collection, although the drawing of a Chinese keyboard diagram included within the article is dated February 10, 1921. Hagley Museum and Library, Accession no. 1825, Remington Rand Corporation, Records of the Advertising and Sales Promotion Department, Series I Typewriter Div., subseries B, Remington Typewriter Company, box 3, vol. 3.

  57 Robert McKean Jones, “Arabic—Remington No. 10,” Hagley Museum and Library, Accession no. 1825, Remington Rand Corporation, Records of the Advertising and Sales Promotion Depa
rtment, Series I Typewriter Div., subseries B, Remington Typewriter Company, box 3, vol. 3.

  58 Paul T. Gilbert, “Putting Ideographs on Typewriter,” Nation’s Business 17, no. 2 (February 1929): 156.

  59 Robert McKean Jones, “Urdu—Keyboard no. 1130—No. 4 Monarch” (March 13, 1918), Hagley Museum and Library, Accession no. 1825, Remington Rand Corporation, Records of the Advertising and Sales Promotion Department, Series I Typewriter Div., subseries B, Remington Typewriter Company, box 3, vol. 2; Robert McKean Jones, “Turkish—Keyboard no. 1132—No. 4 Monarch” (February 27, 1920), Hagley Museum and Library, Accession no. 1825, Remington Rand Corporation, Records of the Advertising and Sales Promotion Department, Series I Typewriter Div., subseries B, Remington Typewriter Company, box 3, vol. 2; Robert McKean Jones, “Arabic—Remington No. 10” (September 20, 1920), Hagley Museum and Library, Accession no. 1825, Remington Rand Corporation, Records of the Advertising and Sales Promotion Department, Series I Typewriter Div., subseries B, Remington Typewriter Company, box 3, vol. 3.

  60 “Chu Yin Tzu-mu Keyboard—Keyboard no. 1400” (February 10, 1921), Hagley Museum and Library, Accession no. 1825, Remington Rand Corporation, Records of the Advertising and Sales Promotion Department, Series I Typewriter Div., subseries B, Remington Typewriter Company, box 3, vol. 3. In 1921, Remington also created a “Chinese Romanized” keyboard based upon the Wade System. On October 20, 1921, the Shanghai-based Mustard and Company reported about the lack of interest in the machine. The home office took note briefly: “had circularized Missionaries Teachers etc etc but found no demand for above.” “Chinese Romanized—Keyboard no. 141,” Hagley Museum and Library, Accession no. 1825, Remington Rand Corporation, Records of the Advertising and Sales Promotion Department, Series I Typewriter Div., subseries B, Remington Typewriter Company, box 3, vol. 1. See also “Chinese Phonetic on a Typewriter,” Popular Science 97, no. 2 (August 1920): 116.