The Ravenous Brain: How the New Science of Consciousness Explains Our Insatiable Search for Meaning
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Further afield, Bernard Baars helpfully and graciously offered his knowledge, while Jonathan Huntley had many insightful suggestions for the psychiatry chapter. In addition, there were so many others in the research community over the years who have imparted their wisdom during chats over coffee or a beer, but this list would take too long to write here, so apologies for not naming you explicitly.
Finally I owe an immense amount of gratitude to the two people closest to me. My daughter, Lalana, while not quite at the stage of offering me advice, unflinchingly produced an excited smile and open arms on my return home, despite guilty periods when I worked so hard that I would hardly ever see her. And she’s been a wonderful inspiration for this book, as I was able to see her consciousness develop as the manuscript did. Greatest thanks of all, though, goes to my wonderful wife, Rachana, for taking up the household slack fantastically during my obsessive writing phases (no mean feat when you have an insomniac baby around!), for reading every draft of every chapter (and there were a lot of drafts!), making copious observant comments each time, and for generally being so supportive throughout.
Notes and References
CHAPTER 1: CONCEPTUAL CONUNDRUMS OF CONSCIOUSNESS
4 In his most famous work, Meditations on First Philosophy
R. Descartes, J. Cottingham, and B.A.W. Williams, Meditations on first philosophy: with selections from the objections and replies. 1996, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
5 “Cogito ergo sum”: R. Descartes and I. Maclean, A discourse on the method.
2006, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
8 A landmark paper . . . described . . . Gage
J. M. Harlow, Recovery from the passage of an iron bar through the head.
Publ Mass Med Soc (Boston), 1868. 2: 327–346.
8 Controversy about the behavioral details
M. Macmillan, An odd kind of fame: stories of Phineas Gage. 2002, Cambridge: MIT Press.
8 Seminal 1949 work, The Concept of Mind
G. Ryle and D. C. Dennett, The concept of mind. 2002, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
10 But more as a superorganism
B. Hölldobler and E. O. Wilson, The superorganism: The beauty, elegance and strangeness of insect societies. 2009, New York: Norton.
11 What Is It Like to Be a Bat?
T. Nagel, What is it like to be a bat? Philos Rev, 1974. 83(4): 435–450.
12 Impossible . . . explain mental states using only physical processes
F. Jackson, Epiphenomenal qualia. Philos Q, 1982. 32: 127–136.
F. Jackson, What Mary didn’t know. J Philos, 1986. 83(5): 291–295.
13 Not as watertight as it might at first appear
D. C. Dennett, Consciousness explained. 1991, New York: Penguin.
14 Jackson . . . has since rejected his former argument
F. C. Jackson, Mind and illusion, in Minds and persons, A. O’Hear, ed. 2003,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
16 Swap red with blue . . . leave all thought . . . unchanged
A. Byrne, Inverted qualia. 2010; http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qualia-inverted/.
S. Shoemaker, Functionalism and qualia, in Readings in the philosophy of psychology, N. Block, ed. 1980, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 251–267.
16 No single, independent class of experience as “red”
Dennett (1991), see above.
17 John Searle in 1980
J. R. Searle, Minds, brains and programs. Behav Brain Sci, 1980. 3(3): 417–424.
23 85 billion neurons in a human brain
F. A. Azevedo et al., Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain. J Comp Neurol, 2009. 513(5): 532–541.
24 Micro-cables . . . wrap around the earth four times
L. Marner et al., Marked loss of myelinated nerve fibers in the human brain with age. J Comp Neurol, 2003. 462(2): 144–152.
25 Computer models closely approximating . . . population of neurons
E. M. Izhikevich and G. M. Edelman, Large-scale model of mammalian thalamocortical systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2008. 105(9): 3593–3598.
28 Tatiana and Krista
S. Dominus, Inseparable. New York Times, May 29, 2011, MM28.
CHAPTER 2: A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE BRAIN
36 Life is honed from natural experimentation
M. Gell-Mann, The quark and the jaguar: adventures in the simple and the complex. 1994, New York: W. H. Freeman.
38 Self-assembling non-life molecules . . . technologically exploited
J. R. Nitschke, Systems chemistry: molecular networks come of age. Nature, 2009. 462(7274): 736–738.
41 The default state for networks of neurons
J. M. Beggs, The criticality hypothesis: how local cortical networks might optimize information processing. Philos Transact A Math Phys Eng Sci, 2008. 366(1864): 329–343.
45 Creating . . . bacteria to make diesel fuel
A. Schirmer et al., Microbial biosynthesis of alkanes. Science, 2010. 329(5991): 559–562.
46 Human genes introduced into mice
W. Enard et al., A humanized version of Foxp2 affects cortico-basal ganglia circuits in mice. Cell, 2009. 137(5): 961–971.
46 Mouse genes into flies
G. Halder, P. Callaerts, and W. Gehring, Induction of ectopic eyes by targeted expression of the eyeless gene in Drosophila. Science, 1995. 267(5205): 1788–1792.
46 Plant species . . . formed . . . of two or more . . . lineages
L. H. Rieseberg, T. E. Wood, and E. J. Baack, The nature of plant species. Nature, 2006. 440(7083): 524–527.
46 Gene swaps between humans and viruses or bacteria
S. L. Salzberg et al., Microbial genes in the human genome: lateral transfer or gene loss? Science, 2001. 292(5523): 1903–1906.
S. Mi et al., Syncytin is a captive retroviral envelope protein involved in human placental morphogenesis. Nature, 2000. 403(6771): 785–789.
49 Mutation rates are increased in some bacteria
I. Bjedov et al., Stress-induced mutagenesis in bacteria. Science, 2003. 300(5624): 1404–1409.
49 Yeast . . . reshuffling . . . entire chromosomes
G. Chen et al., Hsp90 stress potentiates rapid cellular adaptation through induction of aneuploidy. Nature, 2012. 482(7384): 246–50.
49 Primates . . . lowest social standing . . . exhibit innovative behaviors
S. M. Reader, Primate innovation: sex, age and social rank differences. Int J Primatol, 2001. 22(5): 787–805.
51 Faced with some threat . . . worms . . . forgo . . . self-fertilization
L. T. Morran, M. D. Parmenter, and P. C. Phillips, Mutation load and rapid adaptation favour outcrossing over self-fertilization. Nature, 2009.
51 All organisms . . . lives extended . . . simply by eating less
S. D. Hursting et al., Calorie restriction, aging, and cancer prevention: mechanisms of action and applicability to humans. Annu Rev Med, 2003. 54: 131–152.
52 Near perfect memory . . . of Solomon Sherashevski
A. R. Luria, The mind of a mnemonist. 1966, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
56 Greatest source of evolutionary innovation is the virus
F. Ryan, I, virus: why you’re only half human. New Scientist, 2010. 2745: 32–35.
56 50 percent of our genome . . . from ancient viruses
E. S. Lander et al., Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature, 2001. 409(6822): 860–921.
56 Viral donation of DNA . . . placenta in early mammals
Mi et al (2000), see above.
57 Dawkins’ language they are termed “survival machines”
R. Dawkins, The selfish gene: 30th anniversary edition. 2006, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
R. Dawkins, The extended phenotype: the long reach of the gene, 2nd ed. 1999, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
57 Million copies of the Alu sequence
Lander
et al (2001), see above.
58 Selfish imposition of a single mutation-causing gene
Dawkins (2006), see above.
59 20,000 genes . . . required to create your brain
A. R. Jones, C. C. Overly, and S. M. Sunkin, The Allen brain atlas: 5 years and beyond. Nat Rev Neurosci, 2009. 10(11): 821–828.
59 Bacteria . . . resemble a multicellular organism
J. A. Shapiro, Thinking about bacterial populations as multicellular organisms. Annu Rev Microbiol, 1998. 52: 81–104.
60 Douglas firs . . . share soil resources with saplings
F. P. Teste et al., Access to mycorrhizal networks and roots of trees: importance for seedling survival and resource transfer. Ecology, 2009. 90(10): 2808–2822.
60 Tomato . . . release . . . chemicals that neighboring plants can read
Y. Y. Song et al., Interplant communication of tomato plants through underground common mycorrhizal networks. PLoS One, 2010. 5(10): e13324.
60 Ecosystems . . . self-organize
S. A. Levin, Ecosystems and the biosphere as complex adaptive systems. Ecosystems, 1998. 1(5): 431–436.
M. Rietkerk and J. van de Koppel, Regular pattern formation in real ecosystems. Trends Ecol Evol, 2008. 23(3): 169–175.
61 Cell . . . computation
D. Bray, Wetware: a computer in every living cell. 2009, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
63 Protozoa and bacteria . . . learning and memory
A. Mitchell et al., Adaptive prediction of environmental changes by microorganisms. Nature, 2009. 460(7252): 220–224.
63 Limiting factors to this process
S. B. Carroll, Chance and necessity: the evolution of morphological complexity and diversity. Nature, 2001. 409(6823): 1102–1109.
68 Rewire the ferret visual pathway
J. Sharma, A. Angelucci, and M. Sur, Induction of visual orientation modules in auditory cortex. Nature, 2000. 404(6780): 841–847.
L. Von Melchner, S. L. Pallas, and M. Sur, Visual behaviour mediated by retinal projections directed to the auditory pathway. Nature, 2000. 404(6780): 871–876.
68 When reading Braille, process . . . in the visual regions
H. Burton et al., Adaptive changes in early and late blind: a fMRI study of Braille reading. J Neurophysiol, 2002. 87(1): 589–607.
68 Unconscious statistical machine
C. Frith, Making up the mind: how the brain creates our mental world. 2007, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
70 C. elegans . . . can learn . . .
M. De Bono and A. V. Maricq, Neuronal substrates of complex behaviors in C. elegans. Annu Rev Neurosci, 2005. 28: 451–501.
71 Recognize our own emotions . . . our body states
A. R. Damasio, Descartes’ error: emotion, reason, and the human brain. 1994, New York: HarperCollins.
74 Patterns . . . attractive to bees
M. Lehrer et al., Shape vision in bees: innate preference for flower-like patterns. Philos Trans: Biol Sci, 1995. 347(1320): 123–137.
CHAPTER 3: THE TIP OF THE ICEBERG
82 Three evolutionary versions of brains
P. D. Maclean, The triune brain in evolution: role in paleocerebral functions. 1990, New York: Springer.
83 The Diving Bell and the Butterfly
J.-D. Bauby, The diving bell and the butterfly. 2008, New York: Harper Perennial.
84 Parietal lobes . . . linked with . . . IQ
J. R. Gray, C. F. Chabris, and T. S. Braver, Neural mechanisms of general fluid intelligence. Nat Neurosci, 2003. 6(3): 316–322.
85 Frontal lobes . . . complex and novel
Ibid.
J. Duncan and A. M. Owen, Common regions of the human frontal lobe recruited by diverse cognitive demands. Trends Neurosci, 2000. 23(10): 475–483.
J. Duncan et al., A neural basis for general intelligence. Science, 2000. 289(5478): 457–460.
E. K. Miller and J. D. Cohen, An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annu Rev Neurosci, 2001. 24: 167–202.
91 When under . . . anesthesia . . . learning is beyond us
J. F. Kihlstrom and R. C. Cork, Consciousness and anaesthesia, in The Blackwell companion to consciousness, M. Velmans and S. Schneider, eds. 2007, Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 628–639.
91 One of Dijksterhuis’s experiments
A. Dijksterhuis et al., On making the right choice: the deliberation-without-attention effect. Science, 2006. 311(5763): 1005–1007.
92 Delegate thinking . . . to the unconscious
Ibid.
92 Newspaper articles written all over the world
A. Jha, Want to make a complicated decision? Just stop thinking. The Guardian, February 16, 2006, 11.
B. Carey, The unconscious mind: a great decision maker. New York Times, February 21, 2006.
BBC News, Sleep on it, decision-makers told. 2006; http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4723216.stm.
92 Malcolm Gladwell
M. Gladwell, Blink: the power of thinking without thinking. 2005, London: Allen Lane.
93 Made up their minds before . . . seen all the facts
L. Waroquier et al., Is it better to think unconsciously or to trust your first impression? A reassessment of unconscious thought theory. Soc Psychol and Personality Sci, 2010. 1(2): 111–118.
94 No advantage for unconscious processing
F. Acker, New findings on unconscious versus conscious thought in decision making: additional empirical data and meta-analysis. Judgment and Decision Making, 2008. 3(4): 292–303.
94 Conscious deliberation provided an advantage over distraction
B. Aczel et al., Unconscious intuition or conscious analysis? Critical questions for the deliberation-without-attention paradigm. Judgment and Decision Making, 2011. 6(4): 351–358.
B. R. Newell, K. Y. Wong, and J.C.H. Cheung, Think, blink or sleep on it? The impact of modes of thought on complex decision making. Q J Exp Psychol, 2009. 62(4): 707–732.
95 Transfer that learning . . . while still believing . . . guessing randomly
R. B. Scott and Z. Dienes, Knowledge applied to new domains: the unconscious succeeds where the conscious fails. Conscious Cogn, 2010. 19(1): 391–398.
96 Distracted . . . then we learn absolutely nothing
D. Tanaka et al., Role of selective attention in artificial grammar learning. Psychon Bull Rev, 2008. 15(6): 1154–1159.
97 The unconscious mind is unable to cope
R. F. Baumeister and E. J. Masicampo, Conscious thought is for facilitating social and cultural interactions: how mental simulations serve the animal-culture interface. Psychol Rev, 2010. 117(3): 945–971.
98 Damage to the lateral prefrontal . . . don’t generate . . . wrong theories
G. Wolford, M. B. Miller, and M. Gazzaniga, The left hemisphere’s role in hypothesis formation. J Neurosci, 2000. 20(6): RC64.
99 No evidence . . . subliminal messages influence our behavior
P. M. Merickle, Subliminal perception, in Encyclopedia of psychology, A. E. Kazdin, ed. 2000, New York: Oxford University Press, 497–499.
101 Held . . . position . . . closeness of their relative
E. A. Madsen et al., Kinship and altruism: a cross-cultural experimental study. Br J Psychol, 2007. 98 (Pt 2): 339–359.
101 Event . . . placed Kahneman on the path of psychology
D. Kahneman, Daniel Kahneman: Autobiography (from the Nobel Prize site). 2002; http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/2002/kahneman-autobio.html.
102 Unconscious anchoring of our choice
A. Tversky and D. Kahneman, Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases. Science, 1974. 185(4157): 1124–1131.
103 Benjamin Libet demonstrated this fact
B. Libet et al., Time of conscious intention to act in relation to onset of cerebral activity (readiness-potential): the unconscious initiation of a freely voluntary act. Brain, 1983. 106 (Pt 3): 623–642.
103 Similar unconscious source . . . decision to veto