by Arthur Allen
Ukrainian Medical Institute in, 113
University of, 15, 16, 40, 45, 51, 55, 75, 77, 97, 112–13, 149
World War II death toll in, 283
Lwów ghetto, 153, 169, 177
destruction of, 212
Jewish council of, 169
Kuszewicz hospital in, 138–39, 154–56, 158, 169, 177, 212, 286
lab in, 167, 177
typhus in, 139–40, 154–58, 256
Lwów historical society, 76
Lwów Literary Club, 53
Lwów Prize, 97
Lwów school of mathematics, 50–53, 113, 132, 147–48
Lwowska Gazeta, 174
Lwów Society for the History of Medicine, 56–57
Lydtin, Kurt, 183–84
Lyme disease, 17
Majdanek, 192, 284
Makhno, Nestor, 32
Makovicka, Karl, 242
malaria, 17
Malchow camp, 257
malignant fever, 24
malnutrition, 224
Malraux, André, 248–49
Manchuria, 96
Man’s Fate (Malraux), 249
Man’s Hope (Malraux), 249
Mariani, Giacomo, 95–96
“Marseillaise,” 12, 251
Martynowicz, Michał, 62, 97
Martynowicz, Rozalia, 62–63
Massawa, 95
mathematicians, 50–53
Mather, Cotton, 91
Matura, 97
Mazur, Stanisław, 50
McCarthy era, 281
medical ethics, 103–5, 140–41, 173–74
in research, 62, 173, 191–92, 201, 207, 216, 265–68, 270–72, 288
medical personnel:
Nazi protection of, 137–38
typhus deaths of, 24, 28–29, 64–65
Medical Research Council, 266
medical thinking, 56–58
Meisel, Felicja, 171–72
Meisel, Henryk, 171–72, 256–57, 290–92
Meisel, Paula, 171–72, 256, 290
Mellanby, Edward, 266
Mellanby, Kenneth, 266
memoirs, of Holocaust survivors, 100
Mengele, Josef, 224
mental defectives, 268
mentally ill, 138, 288
Mephistopheles (char.), 4
Metamorphosis, The (Kafka), 91
Metuchen, 281
Mexico, 29
mice, typhus research on, 159, 188–89, 193, 204, 239, 246
Micheels, Louis J., 219–20, 226
Microbe Hunters (de Kruif), 58
microbiology, 56
microbiomes, 5
microorganisms, 91
microscopy, 16, 71
Mikols, Henry, 208–9
military clinics, 108
Minden prison camp, 264–65
minority rights, in Poland, 73
missionaries, 65–66, 96, 98
mitochondria, of mammals, 21
Mongolia, 65
Monowitz, 221
Montana, 94–95
Moravia, 15
Morell, Theodor, 186
Morgen, Konrad, 207, 220, 236–37
Morocco, 94, 96
Moscow, 23, 24, 33, 34, 110, 114, 180
siege of, 186
Mosing, Henryk, 61, 135, 160, 231, 277, 289
research of, 277, 300
Weigl eulogy of, 289
mosquitoes, 17
Mrugowsky, Joachim, 80, 89–90, 92–93, 175–76, 191, 202, 204, 209, 212, 229, 233
Ding rivalry with, 241
racial views of, 192–93
testimony of, 268–71
Müller, Bruno, 106
Munich, 252–53
murine typhus, 20–21, 188
Mussolini, Benito, 106
Musulmänner, 102
Naples, 299
typhus in, 299
Napoleon, Emperor of the French, 13, 24
Narbutowicz, Barbara, 292, 294
Nature, 295
Natzweiler camp, 188
Nauck, Ernst G., 120, 141, 269, 272
Nazi Germany, 76–77, 86, 101, 135, 230
anti-Semitism in, 79–80, 90, 93, 119–20, 127–28, 141–42
extermination methods of, 193
infighting of, 186–89
resistance against, 107, 108, 122, 128, 136, 161–64, 171, 173, 194, 214–16, 219–20, 234, 237, 249, 252, 253, 256, 268, 275
Nazi-hunting, 264, 281
Nazi ideology, 5, 75, 84, 90–91, 100–101, 118, 140–41, 267
cleansing the race in, 80, 89–90, 100–101, 103, 141–42, 187, 192
in everyday life, 267–68
Nazi medicine, 5, 7, 10–11, 25, 64, 79–80, 89–94, 118–19, 140–42, 173–74
experiments of, 190–93
self-fulfillng prophecies of, 118–21
typhus panic of, 187
Nazi party, 81, 93
Nazi prisons, 99, 106
Nazi propaganda, 101, 118, 174, 180, 183, 185–86
film of, 130
Nazi SS, 3, 6, 7–9, 79, 99, 127–28, 141–42, 169, 178, 251
contradictions of, 154, 228–29
doctors of, 89–94, 99, 103–5, 167, 191–92, 203, 216, 217, 218–20, 226, 247
economic officials of, 218
guards in, 100, 102, 104
Hygiene Institute of, 192–93, 229–30, 232
judge in, 207, 220, 236–37
killing squads of, 131–32, 169
Main Administrative and Economic Unit of, 212
political prisoners and, 197–98
Third Reich aristocracy of, 80
typhus research of, 7, 11, 79, 106–8, 122, 190
women of, 221
Nazi storm troopers (SA), 81
Nazi war criminals, 236, 264
amnesties for, 265
hanging of, 265
Ness Ziona:
bacteriology lab at, 294–96
Fleck building at, 297
Newman, Paul, 280
New York, N.Y., immigrants in, 18
Nicolle, Charles, 24–25, 31, 62, 63, 97
night terrors, 99
nitpicking, 13
nits, 13
nitwit, 13
NKVD, 3, 78, 110, 116, 123–24, 126–27
Lwów actions of, 110
prisoner murder by, 126–27
and Weigl, 275–76
Nobel Prize, 25, 97, 135, 289
nonaggression pact, 109–10
Nordics, in Nazi view, 90, 93
“normal science,” 296
Normandy invasion, 250–51
North Africa, 94–96
typhus in, 181, 195, 299
war theater of, 181
Novonikolaevsk, 34
numb extremities, 22
Nuremberg, 248, 250
blaming the dead at, 268
Doctors’ Trial at, 191, 199, 265, 267–71, 288
Nazi defendants at, 267–71
Nuremberg Code, 265, 288
nurses, 24, 34, 254
Nusbaum-Hilarowicz, Józef, 15–16, 42, 53
nutrition, 89
Occupied Eastern Territories, 118–19
Ogielski, Lesław, 162
Ogrodziska, Halina, 171–72
Ohrdruf, 260
“On the Specific Characteristics of Medical Thinking” (Fleck), 56–57
Operation Barbarossa, 125, 180
Operation Paperclip, 266
Opieska-Blauth, Janina, 168, 286–87
orderlies, 34
Orlicz, Władisław, 148–49
Ortwin, Ostap, 53
Ossolineum, 230
Ostmark, 93
Otto, Richard, 94, 167
Ottoman army, 25, 28
Pact with the Devil (Wójcik), 274–75
Palestine, 75, 280, 287
Paszczyk, Mieczysław, 214
paradigm shift, 3, 296
parasitology, 63, 239
paratyphoid bacteria, 193<
br />
Paris, 8, 55, 130, 193
Parnas, Józef, 296
partisans, 257
postwar treatment of, 284
passage people, 204, 239
passive immune serum, 31
Pasteur Institute, 12, 16, 24–25, 55, 62, 63, 94, 194–95, 202, 204, 233, 248
Algiers branch of, 114, 269
Casablanca branch of, 94, 96
manipulation of Nazis by, 194–95
manual of, 239
Nazi overtures to, 193–94
postwar at, 266
Tunis branch of, 94, 193
vaccine of, 194–95, 204, 233, 238, 269
pathogenic organisms, new forms of, 17
peasantry, 35, 67, 112, 128, 182
Pediculus humanus capitis, 1–2
Pediculus humanus humanus, 1–2
Peruvian Andes, 301
pesticide sprayers, 299
Petach Tikva, 280
petechial rash, 21, 107
Peters, Gerhard, 193
Petlura, Symon, 130
Pettenkofer, Max von, 89
Peulevé, Harry, 254–55
pharmaceutical experts, 191
pH buffering, 240
phenobarbital, 185
phenol, 69, 147, 199
philosophy, sociology of science, 3, 10–11
Pianist, The (Szpilman), 121
Piłsudska, Aleksandra, 26
Piłsudski, Józef, 26, 32–33, 46, 49, 83
Pius XII, Pope, 98
Plaszów, 252
plebiscite, 112
Pleszczyska, Ewa, 287
Plotz, Harry, 29–30, 34–35
pneumonia, 101, 157
pogroms, 34–35, 38, 46, 72–73, 128–31
Pohl, Oswald, 212, 218, 220
poisoning, 250
Poland, Poles, 15–16, 33, 35
academic world of, 41–42, 50, 106
anti-Semitism in, 16, 38, 53, 56, 72–77, 83, 127–31, 283
Communist Party of, 74
de-Stalinization of, 294
government-in-exile, in London, 162
independence of, 26, 32, 38, 42, 46
intelligentsia of, 106–7, 131, 283
interwar period of, 46–47, 53–54, 72–77, 83
invasion of, 109–10
National Academy of, 287, 289
nationalists of, 46, 72–73, 74–77, 83
Nazi period in, 3, 60, 105–9, 112, 117–23, 125–78
partition of, 46, 50
population postwar of, 283–84
postwar life in, 274–79, 283–84
postwar science in, 288
prime minister of, 147–48
public health in, 41–42, 61, 94
secret police of, 287, 296
Soviet period in, 110–17
typhus in, 38–42, 90–91, 95
Polish National Institute of Hygiene (PZH), 41–42, 62, 64–65, 66, 121, 140, 171, 278, 288, 294
Polish notation, 50
Polish soldiers, 109–10, 114, 125
Polish-Soviet War, 33, 38, 253
political prisoners:
of Germany, 99, 100, 197, 219
as key workers, 197–98, 217
political significance, of syphilis, 88
Poller, Walter, 102–5
postwar genetics community, 47
poverty, 90–91
POW camps, 181–82
medical experimentation in, 185, 269–70
starvation in, 182
typhus in, 194, 270
POWs:
of Austria, 23, 28
of Britain, 248
of France, 194–95
of Russia, 2–3, 14–15, 23, 26, 28, 38–39, 139–40, 144, 181–82, 194
of Turkey, 23
Pozna, 278
Preminger, Otto, 280
President Warfield, 280
preventive medicine, of Nazis, 193
“Principles and Rules of Experimentation on Human Subjects” (Ivy), 267
prison factories, 249
“Problems of the Science of Science” (Fleck), 241–45
Promise Hitler Kept, The (Folkmann), 170
propaganda:
of Nazis, 101
of Soviets, 182
property, confiscation of, 106, 137–38, 277
protein broth, 228
Proteus OX-19, 30–31
proto-ideas, in medicine, 91, 92
Prowazek, Stanislaus von, 28–29
Prussian army, 25
Prussian virtues, 200
Przemyl, 15, 110
lab in, 15, 19, 36, 41, 170
Przybyłkiewicz, Zdzisław, 107, 166, 288
Weigl and, 276–77, 279, 290
public health:
in Germany, 88–89, 93–94, 101
in Poland, 64–67, 92, 114, 119–20, 140–42, 154
Public Health Laboratory, U.S., 94–95
PZH (Polish National Institute of Hygiene), 41–42, 62, 64–65, 66, 121, 140, 171, 278, 288, 294
Quarantine, 119–20
quarantines, 90, 95, 100, 140, 141, 185, 202
quintana, 27, 160, 161–61
rabbits:
at Buchenwald, 234, 237
as food, 221, 227, 247–48, 251, 259
typhus research with, 188, 193–94, 237
vaccine from lungs of, 194, 204, 233, 237, 239–40, 244–47, 270, 281
rabbit soup, 237
rabies vaccine, 171
Rabka, 189
race hygiene, 89–90, 103, 108, 120, 174, 180
racial science, of Nazis, 89–91, 93, 118–19, 134, 142, 192
Radio Lwów, 49
Radło, Piotr, 66, 70
Rajchman, Ludwik, 41, 64–65, 92
Rajsko, 220–29
agricultural research station at, 220–21
animal autopsies at, 227
daily inspection at, 226–27
evacuation of, 256–57
sheep at, 226
vegetable gardens at, 220–21, 226
Rapacka, Helena, 119–20
rash, of typhus, 21, 36
Rats, Lice and History (Zinsser), 14
Ravensbruck, 279
Red Army, 32, 33, 49, 110, 111, 149, 180–83, 257
R. Fleck in, 279
Red Cross:
of France, 249
of Germany, 34
International branches of, 38
of Poland, 66–67
of U.S., 38–39
Redner, Alex, 130
Redner, Marek, 130, 155
Reds (leftists), in concentration camps, 197–200, 208, 232, 297
red spots, 21, 36
Reed, John, 23–24
reflexes, 21
refugees, 24, 32, 34–35, 38–39, 109, 110, 112, 126, 138, 301
post–World War II, 280
Reich, enemies of the, 99
Reichert, 71
Reich Main Security Office, 236
Reich Ministry, in Berlin, 118
Reich territory, 118
Reisowa, Karolina, 53
religious dissenters, 100
Remarque, Erich Maria, 26
resistance:
against Soviets, 116–17, 125
respiratory illnesses, 90
Reutt, Jan, 77
Ricketts, Howard, 29
Rickettsia, 11, 96–97, 98, 145–47, 165, 193, 281, 300
R. mooseri, 94
R. prowazekii, 17–18, 21, 29, 31, 36–37, 55–56, 64, 146, 161, 231, 239, 247, 300–301
complexities of, 239–40, 242–44, 246
genetic analysis of, 21
groupthink and, 243–45, 248
R. quintana, 27, 160–61
R. rochalima, 161
Riga, 192
ritual against typhus, 123
ritual baths, 39
Robert Koch Institute (Berlin) , 63, 88, 94, 188–89, 202, 208, 268
Rocha Lima, Henrique da, 28–29, 63
&n
bsp; Rockefeller Institute, 94, 238, 272
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 20
Rodenwaldt, Ernst, 25
Rokita, Richard, 137
Romania, 109, 114, 193
typhus expert from, 244
Rome, 98
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 163, 265
Rose, Gerhard, 188–89, 207, 268–69, 271
Roux, Émile, 24
Royal Welsh Fusiliers, 27
rubber, artificial source of, 221–22
Ruff, Stanisław, 132
Ruiz Castañeda, Maximiliano, 94, 193
Ruppert, Joseph, 120
Russia:
czarist armies of, 25–26
Napoleonic invasion of, 24
post–World War I, 14
World War I typhus in, 20
Russian revolution, 31–32, 60
typhus epidemic in, 31–35
Russla, 186–87
Russlandmüde, 184
Rutten, Josef, 65–66
sabotage, 23, 162, 165
debates about, 230–31
of kok-saghyz project, 222
of vaccine, 163–64, 177, 239, 245–47, 250
Sachs, Hans, 93
Sachsenhausen, 106
sadism, 137, 220, 235
Saint, Eva Marie, 280
Saint Brigid’s prison, 126–29, 131
St. Petersburg, 35, 60
Salomon, Ernst von, 199
Samsa, Gregor (char.), 91
Samuel, Maximilian, 216
Saxony-Anhalt, 80
Schauder, Juliusz, 53
Schemm, Hans, 93
Schenk, Peter, 209
Scheut missionaries, 65
Schicksal des A.D., Das (Salomon), 199
Schiller, Friedrich, 198
Schilling, Claus, 25
Schlick, Moritz, 76
Schlumberger, 280
Schneider, Paul, 104
Schnelle, Thomas, 58
Scholz, Dr., 190–91
Schöngarth, Eberhard, 131, 132
Schramm, Franek, 77, 127
Schuler, Erwin, see Ding, Erwin
Schuler, Karl von, 80–82
genealogy of, 82
Schumann, Horst, 216
Schwanenberg, Dr., 158, 167–68
science:
acculturation in, 59, 86–88, 242
communicative necessity of, 86–87, 242, 245, 288, 302
as complex phenomenon, 242, 245
democratic aspect of, 59, 85–86, 302
metaphors in, 87–88, 302
reductionism in, 4
relativism in, 84, 245
socio-cultural influence on, 58–59
of terrain-related medicine, 89
truths of, 59–60, 76, 84, 245
Science, 288
scopolamine, 185
Scottish Book, 113, 149
Scottish Café (Szkocka), 50, 51–53, 52, 113, 132
scratching, 21, 69
scrub typhus, 20–21
secondary infections, 239
secrecy, 201
Seeman, Anna, 139, 177–78, 212–13, 216, 256–57, 280
Seeman, Bronisław (Bruno), 139, 177–78, 212–13, 224, 226, 256–57, 280
Seeman, Jakob, 139, 177–78, 212–13, 280
segregation, 96
Seigneur, Marcel, 255
self-delusion, 243–44
