The Modern Middle East - A Political History Since World War I (Third Edition)
Page 72
Mongols, 20, 21
Morocco, 1, 190; Arab Spring and uprisings (2011), 239, 291; associations, 284, 285, 287; baraka, 101, 421n84; Berbers, 48, 101; Bilad al-Makhzan, 47–48, 99; Bilad al-Siba, 48; border conflict with Algeria, 116; cultural legitimation, 279; democratization, 237–38, 280, 282–83; economic development, 229, 283, 356, 361; environmental pollution, 399; Equity and Reconciliation Commission (Instance équité et Réconciliation, IER), 286–87; exclusionary state, 217; French in, 3, 38, 47–49, 98–102, 237; housing, 394; independence, 100, 237; languages, 3; liberalization, 231, 282–83, 285, 286, 289; loyal opposition, 238, 250, 283; military coups attempted (1971/1972), 230, 237–38; and Nasser, 116; national charter, 281; nationalism, 73, 99–102, 107; and Ottomans, 2, 47; parliament, 238, 250, 273, 283, 286; Party for Justice and Development (PJD), 282–83; political opposition, 238, 251, 253, 260, 282, 283, 286–87; political parties, 19, 101, 102, 237, 238, 251–53, 260, 280, 283; rentierism, 229–30, 235; riots, 230, 356; Second Gulf War, 185; shah of Iran, 157–58; Spain and, 102, 237; state of emergency (1965–71), 238; sultanistic state, 214, 215, 229–31, 235, 237–39, 283; ulama, 237, 256; urban populations, 12. See also Morocco’s monarchy
Morocco’s monarchy, 214, 229–31, 237–38, 263, 286–87; Hassan II (b. 1929), 157, 230, 237–38, 256, 286, 287; legitimacy, 101, 229–30, 235, 238, 439n61; makhzen, 283, 445n82; Mohammed V, 39, 100, 101–2, 105–6, 237, 256, 439n61; Mohammed VI (b. 1963), 230, 237–38, 286, 287; sherifian, 47, 101, 230
Morris, Benny, 88, 317
Morsi, Mohamed, 5, 293fig, 294, 345
mortality: infant mortality rates, 388–89. See also casualties; martyrdom; massacres; suicide bombings
Mosul, Iraq, 51
motor vehicles: age of, 399; air pollution, 397–99; per individual, 398table
Mousavi, Mirhossein, 166–67
Mouvement Democratique et Social (MDS), Morocco, 253
Mouvement National Populaire (MNP), Morocco, 253
Mouvement Populaire (MP), Morocco, 253
Muʿawiya, caliphate, 18–19
Mubarak, Hosni: Arab Spring and revolution (2011), 29; fall, 267, 290, 293fig, 387; family wealth, 269–70; inclusionary state, 215; Iraqi-Kuwait mediations, 184; last prime minister, 294; and military, 220, 270; mukhaberat state, 222, 280; patrimonialism, 276; public portraits, 438n36; punishments toward poor, 369; rebellion against, 229, 272, 290–94, 293fig; and voluntary associations, 285
Mohammed V, Morocco, 39, 100, 101–2, 105–6, 237, 256, 439n61
Mohammed VI (b. 1963), Morocco, 230, 237–38, 286, 287
Muhammad Ali, Egypt, 23, 412n7
Muhammad Ali (r. 1907–9), Iran, 31
Muhammad ibn-Abdullah. See Prophet Muhammad
Muhammad ibn Saud, 62
Muhammad Khan, Agha (d. 1797), 30–31
Mujahedeen guerrillas: Afghanistan, 199–200; Iran, 151, 161
mukhaberat: intelligence agency, 95, 217, 223, 226, 231, 279–80; state type, 217, 220–27
multinational corporations, 261, 350
Musaddiq, Muhammad, 144–47, 150, 426nn11,12,16
Muslim Brotherhood: Egypt, 91–93, 255–59, 282, 294, 314, 345, 369; Jordan, 250, 259; Palestinian, 314, 315; Syria, 222, 228, 250, 260, 280
Muslims, 2; Arab-Israeli, 245–48, 440n93; Byzantine tolerance of, 407n3; vs. Copts in Egypt, 134; divisions among, 18; and Haram al-Sharif, 333–35; Israel population of, 303; Lebanon, 247, 248–49; Palestinians, 74, 302, 310, 313, 315; Western, 165. See also Islam; Islamism; Shiʿites; Sufis; Sunnis; ulama; umma
Muzaffar al-Din Shah (r. 1896–1907), 31
mysticism, 29. See also Sufis
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), 377
Naguib, Muhammad, 92–93
nakba: Palestinian (1948), 85, 88, 98–99, 126, 318; Six-Day War, 122, 126
Naser al-Din Shah (r. 1848–96), 30–31
Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 89–98, 94fig, 108–9, 126, 381, 420n72; Arabism, 90–91, 97–98, 106–9, 113–14, 137–38, 172, 190–93; Arab Socialist Union (ASU), 95, 102, 127, 134, 219; death (1970), 108, 123, 124, 126, 128, 171, 219; decline, 108, 109–23; inclusionary state, 215; Iraqi coup (1958) and, 42; and Palestinian nationalism, 85; The Philosophy of the Revolution, 93; resignation, 122; revolution from above, 140; Sadat and, 127, 134, 219; Saddam and, 137, 173, 174, 177, 209; and Six-Day War (1967), 85, 90, 108, 109, 116–23, 220; state modernist transformation, 218; statism, 219, 351; successors (attempted), 173, 174, 176, 191, 192; summits, 92–93, 95, 193; UAR, 98, 107, 108, 109–10, 111–13, 114, 116; and ulama, 256; U.S. and, 95, 96, 111; War of Attrition, 123, 126, 127, 128; and Yemen, 98, 108, 109, 114–17, 123, 137. See also Nasserism/Egyptian nationalism
Nasserism/Egyptian nationalism, 35, 51, 64, 73, 85, 90–99, 109; end of, 122–23, 171; Free Officers, 92, 93, 127, 218; and globalization, 381, 383; Maghred nationalism and, 98–99, 100, 102, 106; 1973 war and, 326; Sadat and, 134, 219; secular, 254, 256. See also Nasser, Gamal Abdel
Nateq-Nuri, Ali Akbar, 164
National Assembly: Iraq, 184, 224; Kuwait, 233
national charters, 281–82; Algeria, 281–82; Jordan, 281; Lebanon, 230, 248, 288; Morocco, 281; Palestinian, 449n30; Tunisia, 281
National Democratic Party, Egypt, 134, 271
National Entente, Morocco, 251
National Front: Iran, 150, 151, 153, 157; Palestine, 136. See also National Liberation Front
national identities: conspiracy theories and, 275; institutions and, 308, 313–15; Israeli, 106, 302–7, 317, 448–49n15; Palestinian, 66, 85, 86table, 87, 316–17, 449n30. See also ethnicity; nationalism
national interest, 190–91, 254, 273–75
National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC), 144
nationalism, 2, 8, 65, 68–107, 171–72, 192; antithetical nature, 70; defined, 68, 416n1; and economic development, 260, 348–50, 382; emergence, 4; globalization and, 382–83; Hijaz, 66, 71, 417n9; Iran and, 58, 71–72, 144, 146, 179, 274, 383; Iraq, 44, 179, 274; Israel, 73, 75–84, 98; Kurd, 244–45; liberal assimilation, 101; Maghreb, 73, 96–107, 116; official/unofficial, 274–75, 278, 279; Ottomanism, 27, 52, 70–71, 85, 86–87, 107; Palestinian-Israeli conflict and, 73, 82–98, 106, 276, 300–317; positive, 146; radical, 87, 101, 315; ruling bargain and, 274–76, 278, 279; secular, 106, 254–55, 262, 301–16, 450n37; traditionalist anticolonialism, 101, 102; Turkey, 27–28, 51–56, 70, 71–72, 106, 242, 383; Western compared with Arab, 85; Westphalian sovereignty, 86–87, 417n10. See also Arabism (Arab nationalism); Arab-Israeli wars; Nasserism/Egyptian nationalism; national identities; Palestinian nationalism; Pan-Arabism; Zionists
national liberation: movements (1960s), 139; political parties, 69. See also National Front; National Liberation Front; Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO); revolutions
National Liberation Front: Algeria (Front de Libération Nationale, FLN), 96, 100, 103, 105–6, 219, 250–51; Yemen, 114
National Liberation Movement, PLO, 123–24
National Pact/al-Mithaq al-Watani (1943), Lebanon, 248, 288
National Progressive Unionist Party, Egypt, 251
National Salvation Party, Turkey, 259
national security, 213; presidential monarchies, 269, 271; quasi-democratic states, 242, 243; security states, 265, 270–71; U.S. strategy of prevention and preemption, 200; West Bank fence, 337. See also intelligence agencies; military; police
National Security Council (NSC), Turkey, 242–43, 247, 283
National Union (NU), Nasser’s Egypt, 95, 112–13
nationhood: nationalism dependent on, 69–70. See also independence; state formation
NATO: Libyan revolutionaries covered by, 295; Turkey, 110, 111
navies: British, 36, 37; Iran, 180; U.S., 180, 181, 196
Nazis/Holocaust, 51, 82, 301, 330
negative equilibrium, state-society relations, 146, 385
Neo-Destour Party, Tunisia, 100, 105, 219, 251
Neolithic Revolution, 11
Nestorian Church, Iraq, 10
Netan
yahu, Benjamin, 193, 204, 330–31, 341
new historians, 82
New Order (Nizam-i Jedid), Ottoman, 25
newspapers: Arab, 87; political opposition, 253, 285, 286
New World Order, American-dominated, 172, 191
NGOs (nongovernmental organizations), 285, 287, 399
Nicaragua: democratization, 281; Iran-Contra Affair, 428n57; revolution, 140
Nile River: cities, 12, 17, 20; water source, 402–4
1973 war. See October 1973 War, Arab-Israeli
Nixon, Richard M., 128, 137, 197
Nizam-i Jedid (New Order), Ottoman, 25
nomadic tribes, 11–12, 30, 33; bedouins, 11, 63, 236, 306, 369
Non-Aligned Summit (Indonesia 1955), 92–93, 95
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 285, 287, 399
North Africa, 1, 48; Abbasids, 20–21; contraceptives, 393; economic conference, 193; Islamic expansion into, 17–18; Islamism, 254, 255; Mizrachim, 303–4; Ottomans, 23; political parties, 253; Shiʿites, 20–21; Umayyads, 19. See also Egypt; Libya; Maghreb; Sudan; Yemen
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 377
North Korea, axis of evil, 201
nuclear program: Bush Doctrine, 200; Iran, 167, 168fig; Iraqi, 179
Obama, Barack, 199, 207, 342
Öcalan, Abdullah, 244–45
Occupied Territories. See Israeli-Occupied Territories
October 1973 War, Arab-Israeli, 36, 109, 126–37, 190, 247, 300, 324; aftereffects, 35, 108–9, 125, 131–32, 138, 219, 307, 314, 326; airlifts, 129, 131, 424n59; and oil, 131–32, 136, 148; Ramadan, 129–33, 423n55; Sadat and, 108–9, 127–30, 130fig, 132–34, 326; Suez Canal, 96–97, 127–31, 130fig, 424n57; Yom Kippur, 129, 131, 423n55
oil, 190, 232; Aramco, 63–64, 416n83; biggest export, 377; boom (1970s), 255, 393; Britain’s Persian Gulf interests, 37, 64, 144; Dutch disease, 362; embargo, 136–37, 169; foreign workers in, 355, 360, 362, 369, 393, 394table, 416n83; Iran, 137, 141, 144, 146, 148, 149, 162, 164, 190, 359, 362; Iraq, 50, 180, 202–4, 359; Kuwait, 184, 186, 352; and liberalization, 234; 1973 war and, 131–32, 136, 148; OPEC, 137, 191; prices, 35, 136, 191, 198, 352; rentierism, 359–62, 383, 385, 459n37; Saudi, 63–64, 137, 198, 203, 352, 362, 415n83; Syria, 131, 190; U.S. Middle East policy and, 196, 199, 203. See also oil monarchies, Arabian peninsula
oil monarchies, Arabian peninsula, 191, 366, 370; bureaucratization of, 232, 234; citizen and noncitizen population, 392, 394table; corporatism, 233–34, 277; foreign workers, 355, 360, 362, 369, 393, 394table, 416n83; GDPs, 352; and globalization, 383; legitimacy, 215, 229–30, 232–33; patronage, 233–38, 281–82, 372; princely privileges, 233–34, 439n74; punishments by state, 369; rentierism, 361–63, 385, 459n37; ruling families, 182, 186, 229–37, 372; semiformal entrepreneurs, 370, 372; sultanistic states, 215, 229–38; tribalism, 215, 232–34. See also Bahrain; Kuwait; Oman; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; United Arab Emirates (UAE)
Oman: environmental protection, 464n20; and Iran’s radical clerics, 190; oil revenues, 352; and political opposition, 250; sultanistic state, 233, 234
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), 137, 191
Operation Enduring Freedom, 196–207, 336, 342, 404
opposition politics. See political opposition
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 137, 191
organizations: civil society, 265–66, 281, 284, 296, 308; nongovernmental (NGOs), 285, 287, 399. See also associations; institutions; international organizations; labor organizations
Orthodoxy, Jewish, 303, 306
Orwellian totalitarian state, 226
Osama bin laden. See bin Laden, Osama
Oslo Accords (1993), 191, 193, 326–37, 341, 345, 381; Arafat/PLO/PNA and, 86, 125, 135, 308, 313–15, 328–34, 329fig, 455nn89,90; Declaration of Principles (DOP), 86, 328–29, 330; final status negotiations, 329–34, 344; Hamas and, 308, 315, 333; IDF influence, 247; intifada and, 86, 308, 313, 327–31; Netanyahu and, 204, 330–31, 341; Peres and, 193, 327, 330; Rabin and, 135, 324–25, 328–31, 329fig; Savir as chief Israeli diplomat, 455n89; Wye River Memorandum and, 331
“the Other,” 6, 13, 302, 304
Ottoman Empire, 1–3, 21–28, 33, 405; and Arabian peninsula, 23, 28, 39, 62, 63; Arab Revolt vs. (1916–18), 28, 35, 39–40, 62; Britain and, 24, 28, 37, 62, 63; central authority lacking, 13, 47, 48, 62; colonialist, 33–34, 387; demise (early 20th century), 1–4, 7, 13, 24–25, 28, 35–37, 44, 50, 65–66, 86–87, 218; dismemberment of, 39–42, 41map, 43; Egypt, 23, 24, 46, 412n7; European loans, 38; expansion (1500s), 7, 21; gunpowder empire, 23; Istanbul, 11, 22, 37, 47; janissaries, 23, 24; jihad, 39; language, 54; Maghreb, 23, 47–50, 106; nationalism (Ottomanism), 27, 52, 70–71, 85, 86–87, 107; New Order (Nizam-i Jedid), 25; Palestine, 46; Safavids compared, 28–29; Sublime Porte (Bab-i Homayun/Bab-i Ali), 23, 38, 47; Tanzimat, 25; three periods, 23–27; Turkey, 20, 22, 23, 28, 47, 51–53; Yemen, 114
Owen, Roger, 265
paganism, 10, 14, 15, 16
Pahlavi, Muhammad Reza Shah, 58, 62, 142–53, 427n26; end of rule (1979), 58, 61, 141, 148, 153, 169; exclusionary leader, 228; in exile, 153, 157–58; Pahlavi name, 415n59; U.S. and, 144–46, 157–58, 198, 427n34
Pahlavi, Reza Shah, 32–33, 39, 56–62, 141–42; Atatürk and, 57, 58, 60fig, 61; British removal/forced abdication (1941), 61, 141, 142, 143; death (1944), 61; exclusionary leader, 228; and Majles, 56–59, 142, 143, 145; and ulama, 57–58, 60, 256; with West vs. communists, 95
Pahlavi state, Iran, 32–33, 56–62, 141–53, 235; four groups opposing, 150–53; four phases, 141–49; military, 59, 146, 153–55, 224; nationalism, 58, 71–72. See also Pahlavi, Muhammad Reza Shah; Pahlavi, Reza Shah
Pakistan: Baghdad Pact, 110; intelligence service (ISI), 199–200; U.S. military presence, 201
Palestine, 51, 301; aliya/migration from Europe to, 73–77, 76table, 85, 88, 300, 301; Balfour Declaration (1917), 41, 42, 44; birth of, 39; Britain and, 37, 38, 44–46, 50, 65–66, 79–80, 87–89; Israel replacing (1948), 39, 82–84, 299; Jews, 42, 44, 70, 73–84; mandatory rule, 44, 46, 50, 51, 79–80, 85, 86–87, 86table; Middle Eastern and African Jews migrating to, 303–4; Nasserism and, 85, 90; Ottoman, 46; partitionings, 46, 80–82, 81map, 84; Saladin, 21; Sykes-Picot Agreement, 40, 412n19; UN nonmember observer status, 341, 342. See also Israel; Palestinian refugees; Palestinians
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 86, 86table, 117, 123–25, 311, 315–16; accommodationism, 325; Arab Liberation Front, 124; Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), 124; Democratic Union (FIDA), 124; Fatah, 117, 124, 315–16, 338, 339; and intifada, 86, 302, 311–15, 323, 327, 329–30; Iraq supported by, 124, 393; Jordanian tensions with, 230; legitimacy, 136, 308, 449n28; and Madrid Peace Conference (1991), 327; and 1973 war, 136, 313; organizations within, 124; Oslo Accords (1993), 86, 125, 135, 313–15, 328–34, 329fig, 455nn89,90; outside leadership, 309–10, 313–14, 329; Palestine National Council (PNC), 124, 313; Palestine National Front and, 136; Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA), 84, 124; Palestinian Liberation Front, 124; political Islam and, 313–14; Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), 124; Rabin negotiation over Gaza Strip and West Bank (1993), 135; and Sadat initiative, 326, 455n83; Second Gulf War, 186; secular, 302, 310, 313–14, 315, 450n37; Shuqairi, 123; and Syrian Vanguard for the Popular Liberation War, 124; UN land for peace resolution, 125. See also Arafat, Yasser
Palestine National Council (PNC), 124, 313
Palestine National Front, 136
Palestinian-Israeli conflict, 4–6, 8, 193, 209, 211, 299–346; accommodationists, 324–26; Arab solidarity with Palestinians, 90, 172; Arab unity and, 172; borders, 123, 333; Clinton involvement, 191, 329fig, 331, 332, 334, 336, 342; deportation of Palestinian activists from Israel, 315, 324; exile experience, 299; human rights abuses by Israelis, 318–19, 322fig, 339, 451–52n54; international sympathy for Palestinians, 198, 275; and Israel as quasi-democratic state, 241–42; Jordan and, 123–26, 129, 136, 230, 326, 346, 455n87;
and living conditions in Occupied Territories, 307, 312–13, 317–18, 321–24, 451n50; mizug galuyot, 306; nationalisms/national identities and, 73, 82–98, 106, 276, 300–317, 449n30; “the Other,” 6, 302; peace process, 6, 125, 191, 193, 211, 323–46; rejectionism, 315, 325, 330, 345; ruling bargain, 212; after Six-Day war, 123; U.S. and, 186, 197–98; violence, 79–80, 83, 135–38, 193, 312–21, 323, 334–40, 450–54; water scarcity and, 402. See also Arab-Israeli wars; intifadas; Israeli-Occupied Territories; Palestinian nationalism; Zionists
Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA), 84, 124
Palestinian National Authority (PNA), 315, 316, 331, 345, 346; Abbas, 338; and Al-Aqsa intifada (2000), 317, 335; Arafat, 312, 312fig, 330; and associations, 285; Camp David II and, 332–34; central bank, 381; foreign aid, 339; Hamas conflicts with, 308–9, 313–14, 315, 334, 339, 451n48; after Israeli withdrawal from Gaza, 339–42; Oslo Accords and, 86, 308, 313–15, 329–33; Palestinian nationalism phase, 86, 86table, 311–12; Sharon and, 336; Wye River Memorandum and, 331
Palestinian nationalism, 70, 73, 84–90, 98–99, 106, 284, 300–316; lost years (1948–67), 85, 86table, 88, 311; mandatory period, 85, 86–87, 86table; nakba (1948), 85, 88, 98–99, 126, 318; Palestinian National Authority phase, 86, 86table, 311; peaceful resistance phase (1914–17), 87; phases, 85–88, 86table, 311, 419n45; PLO years (1967–87), 85, 86table, 311; radicalization phase (1928–33), 87; religious, 302, 313–14; secular, 301–16, 450n37. See also Arabism (Arab nationalism); intifadas; Palestinian-Israeli conflict
Palestinian refugees: Arab nationalism and, 90; Camp David II and, 333; camps in Lebanon, 107, 334; camps in Occupied Territories, 308, 309, 310, 316, 317, 450n37; and national identity, 307–8; 1948 war, 83–84, 89table, 121; oil monarchies, 393; Oslo Accords and, 329; Palestinian nationalism and, 88; population, 83, 88, 89table, 106–7, 236, 307, 309, 317, 419n45; right of return, 329, 332–37, 344; Six-Day War (1967), 121, 123, 317; UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA), 309