Before and After Alexander

by Richard A. Billows

  On al-Kindi as “founder” of Muslim philosophy see Abboud (2006); on al-Khwarizmi see Brezina (2006); and on al-Farabi see Majid Fakhry (2002). For ibn Sina/Avicenna a good introduction is McGinnis (2010); for ibn Rushd/Averroes see Majid Fakhry (2001); and for ibn Khaldun see Fromherz (2010), and also Dawood (ed.) (1981) for an accessible edition of his Muqaddimah or “Introduction to History.”

  Despina White (1981) offers a good introduction to Photius and his work; for Constantine Porphyrogenitus, Toynbee (1973) is still worth reading, and see also Treadgold (2013) ch. 5 for Constantine’s historical work.

  For Cardinal Bessarion and other Byzantine refugees in fifteenth-century Italy, see Monfasani (1995); on Argyropoulos see also Matula (2006); and further on Byzantine emigres Jonathan Harris, Greek Emigres in the West, 1400–1520 (1995).

  GLOSSARY OF GREEK TERMS

  agema: the guard unit surrounding the Macedonian king in battle; there was both an infantry agema, the first battalion of the pezetairoi/hypaspistai, and a cavalry agema, the “royal squadron” of the heavy cavalry.

  agoge: training, especially referring to the Spartan training system, from the age of seven to eighteen, which turned the Spartan boy into the Spartan citizen-warrior.

  agora: originally a public meeting, but in fifth-century and later Greek meaning the central town square where citizens met together for a variety of purposes—political, religious, economic, and social.

  andreia: literally manliness (from aner/andros, the Greek word for a man as opposed to a woman), this word is commonly used to denote virtue, and especially courage, as expected to be displayed by a man in Greek (and especially Macedonian) society.

  archon: literally ruler, this was used as a title for important magistrates in a host of Greek communities, most famously Athens where the archon gave his name to the year in which he held office; it was the title under which Philip II assumed the rule of Thessaly in the mid 350s.

  argyraspides: the “silver shields,” an elite unit of Macedonian heavy infantry so named after their silver-plated shields, originally named by Philip the pezetairoi and later (under Alexander) the hypaspistai.

  asthetairoi: the meaning of this term remains obscure, though it refers to part of Macedonia’s heavily armed infantry.

  barbaroi: this Greek term essentially means foreigners in the sense of non-Greek speakers; the word is onomatopoeic, the Greek bar bar being the equivalent of English “blah blah,” signifying incomprehensible speech.

  basileus: this word means lord or king, most often the latter; it was frequently used specially to refer to the ruler of the Persian Empire.

  chiliarchos: commander of a thousand, the term was used in the Persian Empire and afterwards under Alexander to refer to the senior military officer who functioned in effect as second-in-command of the Empire; later, under Antigonos the One-Eyed, the term referred to a sub-governor of a province in charge of local garrison forces and tribute collection.

  dekas: literally a group of ten, the term was used in the Macedonian army from the time of Philip on to refer to the file of men, one stationed behind the other, which formed a kind of platoon unit of the Macedonian pike phalanx; usually the dekas in this sense seems in fact to have had only eight men.

  doru: spear, usually the ca. eight-foot spear that was the main offensive weapon of the southern Greek hoplite warrior.

  ethnos: literally a people, the term could be used to refer to any special sub-group of people united by some characteristic, including geographic origin.

  gymnasion: literally the place to be naked (from gymnos = naked), this is the structure in Greek cities where citizens went to exercise and bathe, since Greeks exercised naked.

  hetaira: literally a female companion, in fact a high-class courtesan, well educated and highly trained, sometimes likened to a Japanese geisha.

  hetairoi: literally companions; the term refers in Macedonia to the elite supporters of the Macedonian kings until the time of Alexander the Great, when it came to be used to refer to the Macedonian “heavy” (that is, heavily armed) cavalry.

  hoplites: literally an armed man (from hopla = weapons and/or armor), this term usually refers to the heavily armored southern Greek infantry warrior who equipped himself and fought in a distinctive phalanx formation.

  hypaspistai: “shield bearers,” an elite unit of Macedonian heavy infantry under Alexander the Great, originally named the pezetairoi by Philip, re-named the argyraspides towards the end of Alexander’s reign.

  ile (plural ilai): a squadron of cavalry in the Macedonian army usually ca. two hundred men strong; most notably the ile basilike or “royal squadron” (three hundred men strong) that formed the king’s guard in battle when he chose to fight on horseback.

  kausia: a distinctively Macedonian hat, looking somewhat like a modern beret (see ill. 1).

  koinon: literally something held in common, this word was used to denote a federation of autonomous or semi-autonomous Greek cities or communities, banded together for various common purposes religious, political, and military; it is often translated into English as “league.”

  lochos: a sub-unit of the pike battalion (taxis), several hundred men strong and each commanded by an officer named the lochagos.

  ouragos: the rear-most man in a file of the Macedonian phalanx, who served as a sort of non-commissioned officer with the responsibility of seeing that the men of the file held their positions and did not turn to flight.

  paides: literally youths; the term referred in the time of Philip and Alexander, if not earlier, to aristocratic Macedonian youths in their late teens who formed part of the entourage of the king, serving him and learning the business of being a Macedonian aristocrat and officer under his tutelage.

  paidion (plural paidia): refers to a young boy, usually under seven years of age.

  pantodapoi: men from all over, referring to men of varied ethnicities trained and equipped to fight, in the armies of Alexander’s Successors and later, as Macedonian-style pikemen or heavy cavalry; usually these military “Macedonians” would, upon retirement, be viewed and treated simply as Macedonians.

  peltast: a type of (usually mercenary) Greek infantry who were intermediate in role between the heavily armored hoplites and the standard light infantry archers and javelineers; the name came from a distinctive light shield called the pelta.

  penestai: the oppressed underclass of the north Greek region of Thessaly, who lived in a semi-slave condition under the control of the aristocratic landowning class; much of Macedonia’s rural population were most likely held in a similar semi-slave condition of dependency.

  pezetairoi: “foot companions,” an elite unit of Macedonian heavy infantry formed by Philip II to be his guard brigade in battle, later re-named under Alexander as hypaspistai and then argyraspides, while the name pezetairoi was used instead to refer to the battalions of Macedonian pikemen making up the phalanx.

  phalanx: a formation of heavily armed infantry drawn up in highly disciplined lines and files of men.

  phone: literally, speech, in the sense of language or dialect.

  prodromoi: “front runners,” lightly equipped and highly mobile cavalry who functioned as scouts and skirmishers.

  proskynesis: the act of bowing down before the Persian king, touching one’s forehead to the ground as a mark of submission and respect.

  sarissa: a sixteen- to eighteen-foot pike used as the main offensive weapon by the Macedonian heavy infantry phalanx developed by Philip II.

  satrap: derived from a Persian word for governor, this was the title usually used to refer to the governors of the great provinces of the Persian Empire and the empire of Alexander, and was occasionally still used to refer to governors after Alexander’s time.

  Spartiatai: the full citizens of the city-state of Sparta, who had undergone the rigorous and brutal Spartan education system successfully and dedicated their lives to being outstanding hoplite warriors.

  strategos: army commander or general; in many
Greek city-states, such as Athens, in fact the title of a magistrate whose duties might or might not be primarily military; later in the Hellenistic Empires often the title of a regional governor.

  symposion: often anglicized as symposium, this is the after dinner drinking party that was a key feature of upper-class Greek (and especially Macedonian) social life.

  synedrion: the council of state of the Macedonian king, made up of his key hetairoi (companions), mostly drawn from the Macedonian aristocracy.

  syntrophoi: boys who form the group of close associates of a Macedonian prince, raised and educated along with him as his closest friends and companions; these boys are usually drawn from leading families of the Macedonian aristocracy.

  talent: a weight, the exact amount of which varied from one Greek state to another; it most commonly referred to a weight of gold or silver and represented a very large sum of money: since the talent comprised six thousand drachmai and the drachma was a good day’s wage for a skilled craftsman, a family of six or eight people could live comfortably for about twenty years on a fortune of one talent.

  taxis: a battalion fifteen hundred men strong of the pike phalanx; each taxis was recruited from a particular region of Macedonia and commanded by its own taxiarchos or battalion commander.

  telesias: a dance for men, usually performed in honor of a god, in which the dancer was armed with weapons and simulated the maneuvers of hand-to-hand combat.

  theatron: theatre, a viewing space for dramatic and musical performances, roughly horse-shoe shaped and open to the air.

  GENEALOGIES

  TIMELINE

  KEY EVENTS IN GREECE AND WESTERN ASIA

  KEY CONTEMPORARY EVENTS IN EAST ASIA

  560–530: Cyrus the Great establishes Persian Empire

  ca. 567: birth of Gautama Buddha in India

  520–512: Darius extends Persian Empire to Thrace and Macedonia

  ca. 550–500: Confucius (Kongzi), Sun Tzu (Sunzi), and Lao Tzu (Laozi) flourishing in China

  499–494: Ionian Revolt against Persian power fails; Alexander I of Argead dynasty becomes ruler of Macedonia under Persian domination

  481–221: Warring States period in China

  490–479: Persian invasions of Greece are defeated by Athenians and Spartans

  478–460: in power vacuum after Persian retreat, Alexander I extends his power to west, into “upper Macedonia,” and east, to the Strymon valley, establishing the historical Macedonian kingdom

  ca. 454: Alexander I dies; his sons vie for power over Macedonia

  ca. 450–400: Herodotus and Thucydides develop analytical history writing in Greece, and recount the beginnings of the Macedonian kingdom

  ca. 430–413: Perdiccas II rules over Macedonia, holding off Athenian power as best he can

  413–399: rule of Archelaus strengthens Macedonia, including foundation of new capital at Pella

  399–393: chaotic period in Macedonia with multiple rulers

  393–370: insecure and interrupted rule of Amyntas III

  ca. 383: births of Philip II and Antigonus the One-Eyed

  371: Spartan defeat by Thebans at Battle of Leuctra begins decline of Spartan power

  372–289: life of Mencius (Mangzi) in China

  370–368: rule of Alexander II in Macedonia

  ca. 369–359: Theban hegemony in Greece

  368: Alexander II assassinated; Ptolemy of Aloros rules as regent for Perdiccas III

  ca. 366: Ptolemy of Aloros assassinated; Perdiccas III rules Macedonia

  360: Perdiccas III defeated and killed in battle against Illyrians led by Bardylis; Philip II becomes ruler of Macedonia

  359: Philip II defeats initial opponents and creates new Macedonian pike phalanx

  358: Philip II defeats Bardylis the Illyrian in battle and begins expansion of Macedonian power

  356–347: Third Sacred War in Greece damages power of Thebans and Thessalians, and is ended by intervention of Philip II

  338: Philip II defeats Athenians and Thebans at Battle of Chaeroneia and becomes Hegemon (leader) of the Greeks

  336: Philip II assassinated; Alexander III becomes ruler of Macedonia

  334: Macedonians under Alexander III invade Asia and begin conquest of Persian Empire

  331: defeat of Darius III at battle of Gaugamela by Alexander III ends Persian Empire; Alexander becomes ruler of western Asia

  328–326: Alexander III campaigns in Indus valley and defeats Indian ruler Porus

  323: Alexander III dies at Babylon; Perdiccas becomes regent of empire

  320: settlement of Triparadisus; Philip III and Alexander IV are co-kings; Antipater is regent; Antigonus the One-Eyed is general over Asia

  310: death of Alexander IV ends rule of Argead dynasty over Macedonians

  ca. 313: Chandragupta Maurya begins conquests in Ganges valley, India, that lead to establishment of Maurya Empire

  306: Antigonus the One-Eyed is named king, and names his son Demetrius co-king

  305–304: Ptolemy I becomes king in Egypt and begins to establish Mouseion and Library at Alexandria; Cassander becomes king in Macedonia, Seleucus I in Mesopotamia, and Lysimachus in Thrace

  305–303: Chandragupta invades Indus valley; fights Seleucus for control of he region; Seleucus cedes control of Indus valley to Chandragupta and receives 500 war elephants in exchange

  301: Antigonus the One-Eyed defeated and killed at Battle of Ipsus by Seleucus I and Lysimachus; Demetrius flees to become sea king

  283: Ptolemy I dies and Ptolemy II succeeds him as king, establishing Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt

  281: Seleucus I defeats and kills Lysimachus at Battle of Cyroupedium

  280: Seleucus I assassinated; Antiochus I succeeds as king, establishing Seleucid dynasty in western Asia

  279: Galatian tribes invade and ravage Macedonia

  277: Antigonus Gonatas defeats Galatians and becomes king of Macedonia, ruling until 239 and establishing Antigonid dynasty in Macedonia

  273–232: reign of Maurya Emperor Ashoka brings Maurya Empire to its height; Ashoka converts to Buddhism and sends missionaries to spread the religion, including to the Hellenistic rulers

  247: deaths of Ptolemy II and Antiochos II; Ptolemy III and Seleucus II become rulers

  239: death of Antigonus II Gonatas; Demetrius II becomes king

  222: Antiochus III becomes king and starts re-establishing Seleucid power throughout western Asia

  221: Philip V becomes king of Macedonia and sets out on expansionist policy

  221–210: Qin ruler Shi Huangti unifies China, becoming first Emperor of all China

  218–201: war between Romans and Carthaginians (Hannibalic War) in total Roman victory and Roman domination over western Mediterranean

  ca. 218: Qin Emperor Shi Huangti begins construction of Great Wall

  216: Hannibal’s victory over Romans at Cannae leads Philip V to ally with Carthage and make war on Rome, ending in compromise peace in 205

  200: Romans declare war on Macedonians (Second Macedonian War) looking for revenge on Philip V

  202 BCE–220 CE: after collapse of Qin dynasty, Liu Bang founds Han Dynasty which rules China for over 400 years

  197: Romans defeat Philip V at Battle of Cynoscephalae and deprive Philip of all lands outside of Macedonia proper

  194: Antiochus III invades Greece starting war against Romans

  190–189: Romans defeat Antiochus III at Battle of Magnesia and, in Peace of Apamea, deprive Seleucid Empire of all of Asia Minor

  187: Maurya Empire collapses in India

  169: Romans defeat Macedonian king Perseus and end Antigonid kingdom of Macedonia

  ca. 160–55: Greco-Bactrian invasions of Indus valley establish Indo-Greek kingdoms

  146: in aftermath of Roman victories over Macedonia and Achaea, Romans establish dominance over all Greek lands

  138–126: Chinese envoy Zhang Qian travels to Afghanistan, witnessing the declining Greco-Bactrian civilization there and learning of Seleuci
d Empire

  66–64: Roman general Pompeius Magnus ends Mithridatid and Seleucid kingdoms, establishing Roman provinces of Pontus and Syria

  ca. 90: the great Chinese historian Sima Qian publishes his history, recounting China’s past up to his own day, including the travels of Zhang Qian ca

  30: Roman emperor Octavian/Augustus ends Ptolemaic kingdom and completes Roman rule over entire Hellenistic world up to Euphrates River

  ca. 6: Jesus of Galilee born

  ca. 30 CE: Jesus of Galilee crucified on order of Roman governor Pontius Pilatus

  ca. 36–60 CE: missionary voyages of Saul/Paul of Tarsus begin spread of Christianity

  98–180: height of the Roman Empire under the “good emperors” Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius

  238–270 CE: imperial crisis almost brings about dissolution of Roman Empire

  ca 220 CE: collapse of Han Dynasty leaves China disunited

  250 CE: persecution of Christians under Emperor Decius

  270–305 CE: Roman Empire revived under Aurelian and Diocletian

  305 CE: persecution of Christians under Diocletian and Galerius

  307–337 CE: reign of Emperor Constantine who re-unites the Roman Empire and legalizes Christianity

  ca. 320–550 CE: Gupta Empire re-unites much of India into great Hindu empire

  402–450 CE: triumph of Christianity under Emperor Theodosius II who ends pagan worship and closes philosophical schools

  ca. 476 CE: end of Roman Empire in the west with death of last Emperor Romulus Augustus; eastern Roman Empire continues as Byzantine Empire

  ca. 495 CE: Buddhism begins to spread in China