The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism
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33. Peter Dworkin, “Chile’s Brave New World of Reaganomics,” Fortune, November 2, 1981; Valdés, Pinochet’s Economists, 23; Letelier, “The Chicago Boys in Chile.”
34. Hirschman, “The Political Economy of Latin American Development,” 15.
35. Junta finance minister Jorge Cauas made the statement. Constable and Valenzuela, Nation of Enemies, 173.
36. Ann Crittenden, “Loans from Abroad Flow to Chile’s Rightist Junta,” New York Times, February 20, 1976.
37. “A Draconian Cure for Chile’s Economic Ills?” BusinessWeek, January 12, 1976.
38. Gunder Frank, Economic Genocide in Chile, 58.
39. Ibid., 65–66.
40. Harvey, “Chile’s Counter-Revolution”; Letelier, “The Chicago Boys in Chile.”
41. Gunder Frank, Economic Genocide in Chile, 42.
42. Piñera, “How the Power of Ideas Can Transform a Country.”
43. Robert M. Bleiberg, “Why Attack Chile?” Barron’s, June 22, 1987.
44. Jonathan Kandell, “Chile, Lab Test for a Theorist,” New York Times, March 21, 1976.
45. Kandell, “Augusto Pinochet, 91, Dictator Who Ruled by Terror in Chile, Dies”; “A Dictator’s Double Standard,” Washington Post, December 12, 2006.
46. Greg Grandin, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America and the Roots of U.S. Imperialism (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006), 171.
47. Ibid., 171.
48. Constable and Valenzuela, A Nation of Enemies, 197–98.
49. José Piñera, “Wealth through Ownership: Creating Property Rights in Chilean Mining,” Cato Journal 24, no. 3 (Fall 2004): 296.
50. Interview with Alejandro Foxley conducted March 26, 2001, for Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy, www.pbs.org.
51. Constable and Valenzuela, A Nation of Enemies, 219.
52. Central Intelligence Agency, “Field Listing—Distribution of family income—Gini index,” World Factbook 2007, www.cia.gov.
53. Letelier, “The Chicago Boys in Chile.”
54. Milton Friedman, “Economic Miracles,” Newsweek, January 21, 1974.
55. Glen Biglaiser, “The Internationalization of Chicago’s Economics in Latin America,” Economic Development and Cultural Change 50 (2002): 280.
56. Lawrence Weschler, A Miracle, a Universe: Settling Accounts with Torturers (New York: Pantheon Books, 1990), 149.
57. The quotation comes from notes taken by Brazil’s ambassador to Argentina at the time, João Baptista Pinheiro. Reuters, “Argentine Military Warned Brazil, Chile of ’76 Coup,” CNN, March 21, 2007.
58. Mario I. Blejer was Argentina’s secretary of finance during the dictatorship. He received a PhD in economics at the University of Chicago the year before the coup. Adolfo Diz, PhD, University of Chicago, was president of the central bank during the dictatorship. Fernando De Santibáñes, Chicago PhD, worked in the central bank during the dictatorship. Ricardo López Murphy, MA in Chicago, national director of the Office of Economic Research and Fiscal Analysis in the Treasury Department of the Finance Ministry (1974–1983). Several other Chicago grads held lower-level economic positions in the dictatorship, as consultants and advisers.
59. Michael McCaughan, True Crimes: Rodolfo Walsh (London: Latin America Bureau, 2002), 284–90; “The Province of Buenos Aires: Vibrant Growth and Opportunity,” BusinessWeek, July 14, 1980, special advertising section.
60. Henry Kissinger and César Augusto Guzzetti, Memorandum of Conversation, June 10, 1976, declassified, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv.
61. “The Province of Buenos Aires.” FOOTNOTE: Ibid.
62. McCaughan, True Crimes, 299.
63. Reuters, “Argentine Military Warned Brazil, Chile of ’76 Coup.”
64. Report of the Chilean National Commission on Truth and Reconciliation, vol. 2, trans. Phillip E. Berryman (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1993), 501.
65. Marguerite Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror: Argentina and the Legacies of Torture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), ix.
66. Ibid., 149, 175.
67. Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, 165.
68. Weschler, A Miracle, a Universe, 170.
69. Amnesty International, Report on an Amnesty International Mission to Argentina 6–15 November 1976 (London: Amnesty International Publications, 1977), 35; Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, 158.
70. Alex Sanchez, Council on Hemispheric Affairs, “Uruguay: Keeping the Military in Check,” November 20, 2006, www.coha.org.
71. Gunder Frank, Economic Genocide in Chile, 43; Batalla de Chile.
72. United States Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Covert Action in Chile 1963–1973 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, December 18, 1975), 40.
73. Archdiocese of São Paulo, Brasil: Nunca Mais/Torture in Brazil: A Shocking Report on the Pervasive Use of Torture by Brazilian Military Governments, 1964–1979, ed. Joan Dassin, trans. Jaime Wright (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986), 13–14.
74. Eduardo Galeano, “A Century of Wind,” Memory of Fire, vol. 3, trans. Cedric Belfrage (London: Quartet Books, 1989), 208.
75. Report of the Chilean National Commission on Truth and Reconciliation, vol. 1, 153.
76. Kornbluh, The Pinochet File, 162.
77. Weschler, A Miracle, a Universe, 145. FOOTNOTE: Jane Mayer, “The Experiment,” The New Yorker, July 11, 2005.
78. This estimate is based on the fact that Brazil had 8,400 political prisoners in this period, and thousands of them were tortured. Uruguay had 60,000 political prisoners, and according to the Red Cross, torture in the jails was systemic. An estimated 50,000 Chileans faced torture and at least 30,000 Argentines did, which would make the 100,000 figure very conservative. Larry Rohter, “Brazil Rights Group Hopes to Bar Doctors Linked to Torture,” New York Times, March 11, 1999; Organization of American States, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Uruguay, January 31, 1978, www.cidh.org; Duncan Campbell and Jonathan Franklin, “Last Chance to Clean the Slate of the Pinochet Era,” Guardian (London), September 1, 2003; Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, ix.
79. McCaughan, True Crimes, 290.
80. Ibid., 274.
81. Ibid., 285–89.
82. Ibid., 280–82.
83. Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, 25–26.
84. “Covert Action in Chile 1963–1973,” 45.
85. Weschler, A Miracle, a Universe, 110; Department of State, “Subject: Secretary’s Meeting with Argentine Foreign Minister Guzzetti,” Memorandum of Conversation, October 7, 1976, declassified, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv.
86. In Attendance—Friday, March 26, 1976, declassified document available from the National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv.
4. Cleaning the Slate: Terror Does Its Work
1. Daniel Feierstein and Guillermo Levy, Hasta que la muerte nos separe: Prácticas sociales genocidas en América Latina (Buenos Aires: Ediciones al margen, 2004), 76.
2. Marguerite Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror: Argentina and the Legacies of Torture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), xii.
3. Orlando Letelier, “The Chicago Boys in Chile,” The Nation, August 28, 1976.
4. Ibid.
5. John Dinges and Saul Landau, Assassination on Embassy Row (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980), 207–10.
6. Pamela Constable and Arturo Valenzuela, A Nation of Enemies: Chile Under Pinochet (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1991), 103–107; Peter Kornbluh, The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability (New York: New Press, 2003), 167.
7. Eduardo Gallardo, “In Posthumous Letter, Lonely Ex-Dictator Justifies 1973 Chile Coup,” Associated Press, December 24, 2006.
8. “Dos Veces Desaparecido,” Página 12, September 21, 2006.
9. Carlos Rozanski was the lead author of the ruling, which was cowritten by judges Norberto Lorenzo and Horacio A. Insaurralde. Federal Oral Court No. 1, Case NE 22
51/06, September 2006, www.rodolfowalsh.org.
10. Federal Oral Court No. 1, Case NE 2251/06, September 2006, www.rodolfowalsh.org.
11. Ibid.
12. United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide,” approved December 9, 1948, www.ohchr.org.
13. Leo Kuper, “Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century,” in Alexander Laban Hinton, ed., Genocide: An Anthropological Reader (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002), 56.
14. Beth Van Schaack, “The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention’s Blind Spot,” Yale Law Journal 107, no. 7 (May 1997).
15. “Auto de la Sala de lo Penal de la Audiencia Nacional confirmando la jurisdicción de España para conocer de los crimines de genocidio y terrorismo cometidos durante la dictadura argentina,” Madrid, November 4, 1998, www.derechos.org. FOOTNOTE: Van Schaack, “The Crime of Political Genocide.”
16. Baltasar Garzón, “Auto de Procesamiento a Militares Argentinos,” Madrid, November 2, 1999, www.derechos.org.
17. Michael McCaughan, True Crimes: Rodolfo Walsh (London: Latin America Bureau, 2002), 182.
18. Constable and Valenzuela, A Nation of Enemies, 16.
19. Guillermo Levy, “Considerations on the Connections between Race, Politics, Economics, and Genocide,” Journal of Genocide Research 8, no. 2 (June 2006): 142.
20. Juan Gabriel Valdés, Pinochet’s Economists: The Chicago School in Chile (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 7–8 and 113.
21. Constable and Valenzuela, A Nation of Enemies, 16.
22. Ibid., 39; Alfred Rosenberg, Myth of the Twentieth Century: An Evaluation of the Spiritual-Intellectual Confrontations of Our Age (1930, repr. Newport Beach, CA: Noontide Press, 1993), 333.
23. André Gunder Frank, Economic Genocide in Chile: Monetarist Theory Versus Humanity (Nottingham, UK: Spokesman Books, 1976), 41.
24. Ibid.
25. Amnesty International, Report on an Amnesty International Mission to Argentina 6–15 November 1976 (London: Amnesty International Publications, 1977), 65.
26. Ibid.
27. Marguerite Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror: Argentina and the Legacies of Torture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 159.
28. Diana Taylor, Disappearing Acts: Spectacles of Gender and Nationalism in Argentina’s “Dirty War” (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997), 105.
29.Report of the Chilean National Commission on Truth and Reconciliation, vol. 1, trans. Phillip E. Berryman (South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1993), 140.
30. The editorial appeared in La Prensa (Buenos Aires). Cited in Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, 153.
31. Constable and Valenzuela, A Nation of Enemies, 153.
32. Archdiocese of São Paulo, Brasil: Nunca Mais/Torture in Brazil: A Shocking Report on the Pervasive Use of Torture by Brazilian Military Governments, 1964–1979, ed. Joan Dassin, trans. Jaime Wright (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986), 106–110.
33. Report of the Chilean National Commission on Truth and Reconciliation, vol. 1, 149.
34. Letelier, “The Chicago Boys in Chile.”
35. Nunca Más (Never again) : The Report of the Argentine National Commission of the Disappeared (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986), 369.
36. Ibid., 371.
37. Amnesty International, Report on an Amnesty International Mission to Argentina 6–15 November 1976, 9.
38. Taylor, Disappearing Acts, 111.
39. Archdiocese of São Paulo, Torture in Brazil, 64.
40. Karen Robert, “The Falcon Remembered,” NACLA Report on the Americas 39, no. 3 (November–December 2005): 12.
41. Victoria Basualdo, “Complicidad patronal-militar en la última dictadura argentina,” Engranajes: Boletín de FETIA, no. 5, special edition, March 2006.
42. Transcript of interviews conducted by Rodrigo Gutiérrez with Pedro Troiani and Carlos Alberto Propato, both former Ford workers and union activists, for a forthcoming documentary film on the Ford Falcon, Falcon.
43. “Demandan a la Ford por el secuestro de gremialistas durante la dictadura,” Página 12, February 24, 2006.
44. Robert, “The Falcon Remembered,” 13–15; transcript of Gutiérrez’s interviews with Troiani and Propato.
45. “Demandan a la Ford por el secuestro de gremialistas durante la dictadura.”
46. Ibid.
47. Larry Rohter, “Ford Motor Is Linked to Argentina’s ‘Dirty War,’” New York Times, November 27, 2002.
48. Ibid.; Sergio Correa, “Los desaparecidos de Mercedes-Benz,” BBC Mundo, November 5, 2002.
49. Robert, “The Falcon Remembered,” 14.
50. McCaughan, True Crimes, 290.
51. Nunca Más: The Report of the Argentine National Commission of the Disappeared, 22.
52. Quoting Padre Santano. Patricia Marchak, God’s Assassins: State Terrorism in Argentina in the 1970s (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1999), 241.
53. Marchak, God’s Assassins, 155.
54. Levy, “Considerations on the Connections between Race, Politics, Economics, and Genocide,” 142.
55. Marchak, God’s Assassins, 161.
56. Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, 42.
57. Constable and Valenzuela, A Nation of Enemies, 171, 188.
58. Ibid., 147.
59. The editorial appeared in La Prensa (Buenos Aires), cited in Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, 153.
60. Constable and Valenzuela, A Nation of Enemies, 78. FOOTNOTE: L. M. Shirlaw, “A Cure for Devils,” Medical World 94 (January 1961): 56, cited in Leonard Roy Frank, ed., History of Shock Treatment (San Francisco: Frank, September 1978), 2.
61. McCaughan, True Crimes, 295.
62. Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, 77.
63. David Rose, “Guantanamo Briton ‘in Handcuff Torture,’” Observer (London), January 2, 2005.
64. Milton Friedman and Rose D. Friedman, Two Lucky People: Memoirs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 596. FOOTNOTE: David Rose, “Guantanamo Briton ‘in Handcuff Torture,’” Observer (London), January 2, 2005.
65. Arnold C. Harberger, “Letter to a Younger Generation,” Journal of Applied Economics 1, no. 1 (1998): 4.
66. Amnesty International, Report on an Amnesty International Mission to Argentina 6–15 November 1976, 34–35.
67. Robert Jay Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (1986, repr. New York: Basic Books, 2000), 16; François Ponchaud, Cambodia Year Zero, trans. Nancy Amphoux (1977, repr. New York: Rinehart and Winston, 1978), 50.
68. United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide,” approved December 9, 1948, www.ohchr.org.