The Untold History of the United States

by Oliver Stone

  134 Cullather, Secret History, 26.

  135 John W. Young, “Great Britain’s Latin American Dilemma: The Foreign Office and the Overthrow of ‘Communist’ Guatemala, June 1954,” International History Review 8 (November 1986), 575.

  136 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 461.

  137 Walter H. Waggoner, “U.S. Wants Rio Pact Inquiry on Arms Sent to Guatemala,” New York Times, May 19, 1954.

  138 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 98.

  139 “Guatemala Lifts Ban; Allows Times Correspondent to Re-enter Country,” New York Times, May 21, 1954.

  140 Sydney Gruson, “U.S. Stand on Arms Unites Guatemala,” New York Times, May 21, 1954.

  141 Sydney Gruson, “Guatemala Says U.S. Tried to Make Her Defenseless,” New York Times, May 22, 1954.

  142 Sydney Gruson, “U.S. Arms Stand Alienates Guatemalan Foes of Reds,” New York Times, May 24, 1954.

  143 Kinzer, Overthrow, 140.

  144 Young, “Great Britain’s Latin American Dilemma,” 584.

  145 Kinzer, Overthrow, 145.

  146 Schlesinger and Kinzer, Bitter Fruit, 206.

  147 “The Text of Dulles’ Speech on Guatemalan Upset,” New York Times, July 1, 1954.

  148 Young, “Great Britain’s Latin American Dilemma,” 588.

  149 Stephen Kinzer, “Revisiting Cold War Coups and Finding Them Costly,” New York Times, November 30, 2003.

  150 Kinzer, Overthrow, 147; “Dulles Hails Upset of Reds,” Chicago Tribune, July 1, 1954.

  151 Philip C. Roettinger, “For a CIA Man, It’s 1954 Again,” Los Angeles Times, March 16, 1986.

  152 Westad, The Global Cold War, 149.

  153 “Text of Talk by President Eisenhower at Governors’ Conference,” New York Times, August 5, 1953.

  154 “Speech by Vice-President Nixon, December 23, 1953,” transcribed in Conflict in Indo-China and International Repercussions: A Documentary History, 1945–1955, ed. Allan B. Cole (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1956), 171.

  155 “Why U.S. Risks War for Indochina: It’s the Key to Control of All Asia,” U.S. News & World Report, April 4, 1954, 21.

  156 McGeorge Bundy, Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years (New York: Vintage, 1990), 267.

  157 Prados, The Sky Would Fall, 145–157; Fawn M. Brodie, Richard Nixon: The Shaping of His Character (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 322.

  158 Frederick W. Marks, Power and Peace: The Diplomacy of John Foster Dulles (New York: Praeger, 1993), 197, note 41.

  159 Bundy, Danger and Survival, 78.

  160 Schlesinger, Cycles of History, 400.

  161 “Cat in the Closet,” Chicago Tribune, April 13, 1954.

  162 Chalmers M. Roberts, “Our 25 Years in Vietnam,” Washington Post, June 2, 1968.

  163 Richard H. Immerman, John Foster Dulles: Piety, Pragmatism, and Power in U.S. Foreign Policy (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1999), 93.

  164 Walter Lippmann, “Surrender Demands by Both Sides Make Vietnam Settlement Difficult,” Los Angeles Times, April 4, 1965.

  165 William L. Ryan, “Real Leader Needed to Rally Vietnamese,” Washington Post, April 24, 1954.

  166 Hans Morgenthau, “Vietnam Chief a Multi-Paradox,” Washington Post, February 26, 1956.

  167 Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change: The White House Years (New York: Doubleday, 1963), 372.

  168 Wittner, Resisting the Bomb, 147.

  169 Robert T. Hartmann, “AEC Chief Bares Facts on H-Bomb,” Los Angeles Times, April 1, 1954; “Text of Statement and Comments by Strauss on Hydrogen Bomb Tests in the Pacific,” New York Times, April 1, 1954.

  170 Chernus, Apocalypse Management, 87.

  171 Maddock, Nuclear Apartheid, 96.

  172 Chernus, Apocalypse Management, 88.

  173 Bundy, Danger and Survival, 271–273.

  174 John Swenson-Wright, Unequal Allies: United States Security and Alliance Policy Toward Japan, 1945–1960 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005), 181. For a fuller discussion of this effort, see Peter J. Kuznick, “Japan’s Nuclear History in Perspective: Eisenhower and Atoms for War and Peace,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, April 13, 2011, http://www.thebulletin.org/web-edition/features/japans-nuclear-history-perspective-eisenhower-and-atoms-war-and-peace, or Toshiyuki Tanaka and Peter Kuznick, Genpatsu to hiroshima—genshiryoku heiwa riyo no shinso (Nuclear Power and Hiroshima: The Truth Behind the Peaceful Use of Nuclear Power) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 2011).

  175 Stanley Levey, “Nuclear Reactor Urged For Japan,” New York Times, September 22, 1954, 14.

  176 “A Reactor for Japan,” Washington Post, September 23, 1954, 18; Foster Hailey, “Tokyo Press Stirs Ire of Americans,” New York Times, June 8, 1956.

  177 William L. Laurence, “Now Most Dreaded Weapon, Cobalt Bomb, Can Be Built; Chemical Compound That Revolutionized Hydrogen Bomb Makes It Possible,” New York Times, April 7, 1954.

  178 “Russ Reported Making Deadly Nitrogen Bomb,” Los Angeles Times, April 9, 1954.

  179 “Cobalt Bomb’s Peril to All Life Stressed,” Washington Post, February 14, 1955.

  180 DeGroot, The Bomb, 198.

  CHAPTER 7: JFK: “THE MOST DANGEROUS MOMENT IN HUMAN HISTORY”

  1 “Shedding New Light on the Stalin Regime,” Manchester Guardian, March 17, 1956.

  2 Gerald J. DeGroot, Dark Side of the Moon: The Magnificent Madness of the American Lunar Quest (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 64, 67–68.

  3 Ibid., 69.

  4 Martin Walker, The Cold War: A History (New York: Macmillan, 1995), 114.

  5 Lloyd C. Gardner, “The Dulles Years: 1953–1959,” in From Colony to Empire, ed. William Appleman Williams (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1972), 418.

  6 DeGroot, Dark Side of the Moon, 73.

  7 “Science: Sputnik’s Week,” Time, October 21, 1957, 51.

  8 Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (1983; reprint, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991), 135.

  9 Mathew Brzezinski, Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries that Ignited the Space Age (New York: Macmillan), 180.

  10 David Halberstam, The Fifties (New York: Villard, 1993), 621.

  11 “Khrushchev Speaks on Economic and Technical Progress,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, December 1957, 360.

  12 Dwight D. Eisenhower: Public Papers of the President of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1961), 789–792.

  13 William J. Broad, “U.S. Planned Nuclear Blast on the Moon, Physicist Says,” New York Times, May 16, 2000.

  14 Keay Davidson and Carl Sagan, Carl Sagan: A Life (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999), 86.

  15 Special National Intelligence Estimate Number 11-10-57, “The Soviet ICBM Program,” December 10, 1957, National Security Archive, Digital Collection, Soviet Estimate, 2.

  16 Richard Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 109.

  17 Chalmers M. Roberts, “Enormous Arms Outlay Is Held Vital to Survival,” Washington Post, December 20, 1957.

  18 DeGroot, Dark Side of the Moon, 69.

  19 Joseph Alsop, “Matter of Fact: Untruths on Defense,” Washington Post, August 1, 1958.

  20 John G. Norris, “Power Shifts to Soviet, Kennedy Warns,” Washington Post, August 15, 1958.

  21 Michael S. Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), 218.

  22 Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 162–163.

  23 “Texts of Appeal by Noted Scientists for Abolition of War,” New York Times, July 10, 1955.

  24 Otto Nathan and Heinz Norden, ed. Einstein on Peace (New York: Schocken Books, 1960), 681.

  25 “Policies Averted 3 Wars, Dulles Quoted as Saying,” New York Times, January 12, 1956.

  26 William S. White, “Rayburn Assails Stand by Dulles,” New York Times, January 17, 1956.

  2
7 “Dulles Risking U.S. Safety, Adlai Charges,” Washington Post, January 15, 1956; Richard J. H. Johnston, “Stevenson Bids President Repudiate or Oust Dulles,” New York Times, January 18, 1956.

  28 Chalmers M. Roberts, “Political Pot-Shots Beset Dulles,” Washington Post, January 17, 1956.

  29 “Protest to Ike over Dulles’ Step to the Brink,” Chicago Tribune, January 29, 1956.

  30 John Lewis Gaddis, “The Unexpected John Foster Dulles: Nuclear Weapons, Communism, and the Russians,” in John Foster Dulles and the Diplomacy of the Cold War, ed. Richard H. Immerman (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), 53–58.

  31 “What the President Saw: A Nation Coming into Its Own,” Time, July 29, 1985, 50.

  32 Warren Unna, “Atoms and Politics,” Washington Post, October 10, 1956; Bradford Jacobs, “Stevenson,” Baltimore Sun, October 27, 1956.

  33 Bradford Jacobs, “Democrat Again Urges Testing Ban,” Baltimore Sun, October 16, 1956.

  34 Henry R. Lieberman, “Nehru Again Asks End of Bomb Tests,” New York Times, May 18, 1957.

  35 “Focus on Atoms,” New York Times, May 19, 1957.

  36 Lawrence S. Wittner, Resisting the Bomb: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement, 1954–1970 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997), 52–53.

  37 Ibid., 35–36.

  38 Warren Unna, “Libby Believes Man Can Tap Energy Sealed in Mountain by A-Bomb Blast,” Washington Post, December 3, 1957.

  39 Richard G. Hewlett and Jack M. Holl, Atoms for Peace and War, 1953–1961: Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 529.

  40 Gladwin Hill, “A.E.C. Considers Deep A-Blasting for Oil and Ore,” New York Times, March 14, 1958.

  41 “Underground Atom Blast Planned for U.S. for 1961,” New York Times, March 17, 1960.

  42 “‘Plowshare’ Seeks Uses for H-Bomb Explosions,” Washington Post, August 23, 1959.

  43 “Excerpts from Message by Schweitzer,” New York Times, April 24, 1957; “Schweitzer Urges World Opinion to Demand End of Nuclear Tests,” New York Times, April 24, 1957.

  44 “Focus on Atoms,” New York Times, May 19, 1957.

  45 George Gallup, “Public Favors H-Tests’ Halt, If—,” Washington Post, May 19, 1957.

  46 Earle P. Brown, “The Facing of Certain Death,” Washington Post, July 28, 1957.

  47 Gerard J. De Groot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 211.

  48 Bosley Crowther, “Screen: On the Beach,” New York Times, December 18, 1959.

  49 Spencer R. Weart, Nuclear Fear: A History of Images (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 218–219.

  50 Kenneth D. Rose, One Nation Underground: The Fallout Shelter in American Culture (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 43.

  51 Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly, 101.

  52 Robert S. Norris and William M. Arkin, “Estimated U.S. and Soviet/Russian Nuclear Stockpiles, 1945–94,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, November–December 1994, 58–59; Robert S. Norris and William M. Arkin, “Global Nuclear Stockpiles, 1945–2006,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, July–August 2006, 66.

  53 Daniel Ellsberg, personal communication with Peter Kuznick.

  54 David A. Rosenberg, “The Origins of Overkill: Nuclear Weapons and American Strategy, 1945–1960,” International Security 7 (Spring 1983), 8.

  55 Daniel Ellsberg, Secrets: A Memoir of Vietnam and the Pentagon Papers (New York: Viking, 2002), 58–59.

  56 David Talbot, Brothers: The Hidden History of the Kennedy Years (New York: Free Press, 2007), 36.

  57 W. H. Lawrence, “President Describes Nixon Role in Administration’s Decisions,” New York Times, August 25, 1960.

  58 Charles J. G. Griffin, “New Light on Eisenhower’s Farewell Address,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 22 (Summer 1992), 472.

  59 Milton Leitenberg, personal communication with Peter Kuznick, December 2010.

  60 “Text of Eisenhower’s Farewell Address,” New York Times, January 18, 1961.

  61 Walter Lippmann, “Today and Tomorrow: Eisenhower’s Farewell Warning,” Washington Post, January 19, 1961.

  62 Griffin, “New Light on Eisenhower’s Farewell Address,” 475.

  63 Jack Raymond, “The ‘Military-Industrial Complex’: An Analysis,” New York Times, January 22, 1961.

  64 Talbot, Brothers, 35–36.

  65 Desmond Ball, Politics and Force Levels: The Strategic Missile Program of the Kennedy Administration (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 18–19.

  66 Christopher A. Preble, “Who Ever Believed in the ‘Missile Gap’?: John F. Kennedy and the Politics of National Security,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 33 (December 2003), 805–806.

  67 “Text of President Kennedy’s Inaugural Address,” Washington Post, January 21, 1961.

  68 David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (New York: Random House, 1972), 60.

  69 Kenneth P. O’Donnell and David F. Powers, “Johnny, We Hardly Knew Ye”: Memories of John Fitzgerald Kennedy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), 14.

  70 Talbot, Brothers, 45.

  71 Talbot, Brothers, 50–51.

  72 “Curtains for Now in Cuba,” Chicago Tribune, April 22, 1961.

  73 “The Collapse in Cuba,” Wall Street Journal, April 21, 1961.

  74 “A Policy on Cuba,” New York Times, April 27, 1961.

  75 Douglas Brinkley, Dean Acheson: The Cold War Years (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 127; Jim Heath, Decade of Disillusionment: The Kennedy-Johnson Years (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1975), 83.

  76 Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest, 69.

  77 “Kennedy’s Address,” Baltimore Sun, April 21, 1961.

  78 Jack Raymond, “Gore Would Oust the Joint Chiefs,” New York Times, May 20, 1961; “C.I.A. Under the Microscope,” New York Times, May 9, 1961.

  79 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1965), 292.

  80 Ibid., 258.

  81 Benjamin C. Bradlee, Conversations with Kennedy (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), 122.

  82 Talbot, Brothers, 50–51.

  83 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 180.

  84 Ibid., 178–179.

  85 Talbot, Brothers, 51.

  86 W. J. Rorabaugh, Kennedy and the Promise of the Sixties (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 24.

  87 Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, 391.

  88 T. Christopher Jespersen, ed. Interviews with George F. Kennan (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2002), 88.

  89 Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest, 76.

  90 Melvyn P. Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 163–164.

  91 Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon, 297.

  92 Heather A. Purcell and James K. Galbraith, “Did the U.S. Military Plan a Nuclear First Strike for 1963?,” American Prospect 19 (Fall 1994), 88–96.

  93 Dean Rusk, As I Saw It (New York: W. W. Norton, 1990), 246–247.

  94 Roger Hilsman, From Nuclear Military Strategy to a World Without War: A History and Proposal (New York: Praeger, 1999), 52.

  95 “Text of Kennedy Appeal to Nation for Increases in Spending and Armed Forces,” New York Times, July 26, 1961.

  96 James Carroll, An American Requiem: God, My Father, and the War That Came Between Us (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), 82–83.

  97 Michael R. Beschloss, The Crisis Years: Kennedy and Khrushchev 1960–1963 (New York: Edward Burlingame Books, 1991), 278.

  98 Shane J. Maddock, Nuclear Apartheid: The Quest for American Atomic Supremacy from World War II to the Present (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 131.

  99 Ibid., 162–163.

  100 “Fallout Defense Seen in ‘Deplorable Shape,’ ” Washington Post, March 29, 1960.

  101 “Fire Wrecks Libby’s Bel Air Fallout Shelter,” Washington
Post, November 10, 1961.

  102 Rose, One Nation Underground, 190; “Atom Shelter Builders Finding Business Poor,” Los Angeles Times, June 4, 1961.

  103 Rose, One Nation Underground, 97, 94.

  104 L. C. McHugh, “Ethics at the Shelter Doorway,” America, September 30, 1961, 826.

  105 Louis Cassels, “Private A-Shelters Held ‘Unjust’ by Bishop Dunn,” Washington Post, October 14, 1961.

  106 Rose, One Nation Underground, 98.

  107 Arthur Gelb, “Political Satire Invades Capital,” New York Times, January 30, 1962; Emma Harrison, “Priest Unmoved on Shelter View,” New York Times, November 22, 1961.

  108 “U.S. Bares Atomic Might,” Chicago Tribune, October 22, 1961; Beschloss, The Crisis Years, 331.

  109 The U.S. had one Titan and sixty-two Atlas ICBMs by December 31, 1961, according to the December 7, 1991, SAC report “Alert Operations and the Strategic Air Command, 1957–1991.”

  110 Roy F. Houchin, US Hypersonic Research and Development: The Rise and Fall of Dyna-Soar, 1944–1963 (New York: Routledge, 2006), 140; Robert S. Norris and William M. Arkin, “Global Nuclear Stockpiles, 1945–2006,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, July–August 2006, 66.

  111 Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon, 246.

  112 Ibid., 254–257.

  113 James G. Blight and Philip Brenner, Sad & Luminous Days: Cuba’s Struggle with the Superpowers after the Missile Crisis (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 8.

  114 Ibid.

  115 Gregg Herken, Counsels of War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 37.

  116 Allan M. Winkler, Life Under a Cloud: American Anxiety About the Atom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 175.

  117 Talbot, Brothers, 95.

  118 Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 184–185.

  119 “Justification for U.S. Military Intervention in Cuba,” March 13, 1962, National Security Archive, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20010430/doc1.pdf.

  120 John F. Kennedy, “Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at the Fourth Annual Rockhurst Day Banquet of Rockhurst College in Kansas City, Missouri, Saturday, June 2, 1956,” www.findingcamelot.net/speeches/1956/remarks-of-senator-john-f-kennedy-at-the-fourth-annual-rockhurst-day-banquet-of-rockhurst-college-in-kansas-city-missouri-Saturday-June-2-1956/.