The English Language: A Guided Tour of the Language

by David Crystal

  Pronunciation

  Apart from the regular differences, such as the pronunciation of /r/ after vowels in much of AmE (see p. 241), there are several individual words which are pronounced differently. Here are some of the frequently used ones. In each case the contrast is with mid-20th-century Received Pronunciation (see p. 64).

  Schedule begins with two consonants in AmE (as in skin), but with one in BrE (as in shin).

  The middle vowel of tomato rhymes only with car in BrE, but also with mate in AmE.

  The first syllable of lever rhymes only with leaver in BrE, but also with that of level in AmE.

  Conversely, the first syllable of leisure rhymes only with the vowel of let in BrE, but also rhymes with lee in AmE.

  Route rhymes with out for many AmE speakers; it is always like root in BrE.

  Vase rhymes only with cars in BrE, but also with vase or days in AmE.

  Docile is ‘doss-ile’ in AmE, but ‘doe-sile’ in BrE. The -ile ending regularly changes in this way: missile is often pronounced like missal in AmE, and similarly fertile, hostile, etc.

  Herb is pronounced without the initial h in AmE, but with the h in BrE; however, some herb- words do have h in AmE, such as herbivore, herbicide.

  Many AmE speakers stress certain words differently from BrE speakers:

  AmE ballet debris address inquiry magazine

  BrE ballet debris address inquiry magazine

  And several words which have one main stress in BrE have two in AmE:

  AmE auditory secretary laboratory Birmingham (US city)

  BrE auditory secretary laboratory Birmingham

  It has to be acknowledged that some US pronunciations have come to be increasingly used by young British people in recent decades. And older people who accommodate to them can end up with mixed usage. In my own case – to take the first of the above examples – I normally use the BrE pronunciation of schedule, but when talking to my children, all of whom now use the AmE version, I routinely slip into their usage. (I’m not sure if it makes me feel young again or not!)

  Spelling

  Some typical examples of spelling differences follow. However, the picture is complicated by the fact that some American spellings are now in use in BrE (e.g. judgment, inquire, encyclopedia) and some BrE spellings are used in the US (e.g. enclose, judgement).

  BrE -ou- colour honour labour mould smoulder

  AmE -0- color honor labor mold smolder

  BrE en- enclose endorse enquiry ensure

  AmE in- inclose indorse inquiry insure

  BrE -ae/oe- anaesthetic encyclopaedia foetus manoeuvre

  AmE -e- anesthetic encyclopedia fetus maneuver

  BrE -re centre litre theatre fibre

  AmE -er center liter theater fiber

  BrE -ce defence offence licence (noun)

  AmE -se defense offense license (noun/verb)

  BrE -ll- libellous quarrelling travelled jewellery woollen

  AmE -l- libelous quarreling traveled jewelry woolen

  BrE -1- fulfil skilful instalment

  AmE -ll- fulfill skillful installment

  And there are many individual items (but usage can vary):

  BrE cheque gaol kerb moustache plough storey tyre

  AmE check jail curb mustache plow story tire

  BrE tsar pyjamas programme kidnapper draught

  AmE czar pajamas program kidnaper draft

  Non-standard spellings are much more in public use in AmE in advertisements, shop signs, road signs, etc.:

  donuts hi/lo tonite thru thruway kool

  Grammar

  There are several small points of difference in the grammar of the two varieties, though the influence of AmE on BrE is such that many of the usages which were once restricted to the former now appear in the latter. Also, some of the BrE usages are found in AmE, with varying preference, depending on dialect and style.

  BrE AmE

  twenty to four twenty of four

  five past eight five after eight

  River Thames Hudson River

  really good real good

  different to/from different than/from

  behind the building in back of the building

  half an hour a half hour

  in future,… in the future,…

  I burnt it I burned it

  He’s got off the chair He’s gotten off the chair

  I sneaked out quietly I snuck out quietly

  I shan’t tell anyone I won’t tell anyone

  I’d like you to go now I’d like for you to go now

  I’m visiting her tomorrow I’m visiting with her tomorrow

  I’ll go and get the car I’ll go get the car

  Come and take a look Come take a look

  I’ve just eaten I just ate

  I asked him to leave I asked that he leave

  The government is/are stupid The government is stupid

  I want to get out I want out

  They’ve one innings left (cricket) They’ve one inning left (baseball)

  There were six millions There were six million

  He’s in hospital He’s in the hospital

  I’ve not seen it yet I didn’t see it yet

  I’ll see you at the weekend I’ll see you over the weekend

  Look out of the window Look out the window

  I’ll go in a moment I’ll go momentarily

  I haven’t seen her for ages I haven’t seen her in ages

  On Mondays we take the bus Mondays we take the bus

  I’ll start on March 1st I’ll start March 1st

  Monday to Friday inclusive Monday through Friday

  Vocabulary

  There are many words which are used in both AmE and BrE, but with a difference of meaning. Several of the AmE uses have come to be used in BrE in recent years.

  AmE BrE

  billion a thousand million a million million (now archaic)

  dumb stupid, mute mute

  homely plain (people) domestic

  knock up get a woman pregnant get someone to answer

  nervy cheeky nervous

  pants trousers underpants

  pavement any paved surface pedestrian path

  school any educational institution mainly primary and secondary levels

  smart intelligent intelligent or groomed

  In the following list, the words have the same meaning (in certain contexts of use). However, some BrE terms are found in AmE, and several of the AmE terms are now widely used in BrE.

  AmE BrE AmE BrE

  alumnus graduate billboard hoarding

  apartment flat biscuit scone

  attorney solicitor/barrister broil grill

  automobile motor car buffet sideboard

  baby buggy/carriage pram cab taxi

  ballpoint biro call (phone) ring

  bar pub call collect reverse the charges

  can tin outlet point (power)

  candy sweets overalls dungarees

  changepurse purse overpass flyover

  check (mark) tick pacifier dummy

  checkers draughts pants trousers

  closet cupboard pantyhose tights

  corn maize/sweet corn peek peep

  couch sofa pitcher jug

  cracker biscuit (savoury) potato chips crisps

  crib cot pullman car sleeping car

  custard egg custard public school state school

  davenport sofa purse handbag

  dessert sweet/pudding railroad railway

  detour diversion raise (salary) rise

  diaper nappy realtor estate agent

  dish towel tea towel schedule timetable

  drug store chemist second floor first floor

  eggplant auberine sedan saloon car

  elevator lift shorts (men) underpants, shorts

  fall autumn sick ill

  faucet tap sidewalk pavement

  fender wing/mudguard sneakers plimsolls, trainers

  first floor ground floor sophomore second-year student
>
  flashlight torch spigot tap (outdoors)

  garbage rubbish station wagon estate car

  garter suspender suspenders braces

  gas petrol term paper essay (school)

  gear shift gear lever thread cotton

  generator dynamo thumbtack drawing pin

  grade school primary school tightwad miser

  hobo tramp traffic circle roundabout

  hood (car) bonnet transportation transport

  intersection crossroads trash rubbish

  janitor caretaker trashcan dustbin

  Jello jelly truck lorry

  jelly jam trunk (car) boot

  kerosene paraffin tuxedo dinner jacket

  lawyer solicitor/barrister underpants knickers/pants

  line queue undershirt vest

  liquor store off-licence vacation holidays

  mail post vest waistcoat

  mailbox pillar-box washcloth face flannel

  math maths windshield windscreen

  molasses treacle wrench spanner

  mortician undertaker yard garden

  movie film yield (road sign) give way

  muffler silencer zipper zip

  oil pan sump zucchini courgettes

  14

  English Today

  Two main themes can be traced through the earlier chapters in this book: the regional and the social diversification of the English language. English has never been a totally homogeneous language, but its history is primarily the story of the way it has become increasingly heterogeneous in its sounds, grammar, and vocabulary, as it has come to be adopted by

  ‘But am I a person, Cynthia?’

  Punch, 21 March 1984

  different communities around the world, and adapted by them to meet their social needs. At the same time, each community has had to respond to the pressure of social change, both from within – from its members – and from outside. Different social groups make demands on society for recognition, and use distinctive language as a means of achieving public identity. And everyone is affected by the political, economic, and cultural pressures which come from abroad, causing societies to change in unprecedented ways, and to adopt the language that comes with such change.

  English loan words

  The best-known current example of external influence causing language change is the ‘Americanization’ of world culture, which has caused English words to appear prominently in city streets all over the world, reflecting the dominance of that culture’s popular songs, films, television, high finance, food and drink, and consumer goods. The American way of life is considered modern, fashionable, and desirable to the younger, trend-setting generations of society found in all developed and developing countries, and the language associated with these trends is eagerly taken up. The effect is most noticeable in popular music. Foreign groups (such as the Swedish group Abba) often record in English, and the words are picked up and rehearsed in the same language everywhere, even by children who otherwise have little or no command of the language. I once met a Brazilian child of about ten who could count ‘one, two, three’, but only by adding the words ‘o’clock, four o’clock rock’ at the end.

  Depending on your point of view, therefore, English loan words are a good or a bad thing. People who do not approve of American values or who are disturbed by rapidity of change are often strongly critical of the impact of English on their language – especially when an English word supplants a traditional word. For example, in Spanish, planta (‘plant’, in the sense of ‘factory’) is often used where fabrica (factory) was used before, and this has been criticized in the press and on television. Similarly, in Dutch mistletoe is now often found where maretak was used before. In 1977, France passed a law banning the use of English words in official contexts if an equivalent French expression existed – but the law seems to be honoured more in the breach than in the observance. Some other

  English loan words in Europe

  All the words below have been found in various European languages without any translation being given. The spelling below is standard English; different countries may re-spell a word according to its own conventions, e.g. boxing becomes boksing in Norwegian, goal becomes gowl in Spanish. Also several languages adapt English words to their own grammar, e.g. Italian weekendista, cocacolonizzare (Coca-Cola-colonize).

  Sport: baseball, bobsleigh, clinch, comeback, deuce, football, goalie, jockey, offside, photo-finish, semi-final, volley, walkover

  Tourism, transport etc.: antifreeze, camping, hijack, hitch-hike, jeep, joy-ride, motel, parking, picnic, runway, scooter, sightseeing, stewardess, stop (sign), tanker, taxi

  Politics, commerce: big business, boom, briefing, dollar, good-will, marketing, new deal, senator, sterling, top secret

  Culture, entertainment: cowboy, group, happy ending, heavy metal, hi-fi, jam session, jazz, juke-box, Miss World (etc.), musical, night-club, pimp, ping-pong, pop, rock, showbiz, soul, striptease, top twenty, Western, yeah-yeah-yeah

  People and behaviour: AIDS, angry young man, baby-sitter, boy friend, boy scout, callgirl, cool, cover girl, crack (drugs), crazy, dancing, gangster, hash, hold-up, jogging, mob, pin-up, reporter, sex-appeal, sexy, smart, snob, snow, teenager

  Consumer society: air conditioner, all rights reserved, aspirin, bar, bestseller, bulldozer, camera, chewing gum, Coca Cola, cocktail, coke, drive-in, eye-liner, film, hamburger, hoover, jumper, ketchup, kingsize, Kleenex, layout, Levis, LP, make-up, sandwich, science fiction, Scrabble, self-service, smoking, snackbar, supermarket, tape, thriller, up-to-date, WC, weekend.

  And of course: OK

  countries have considered introducing a similar law – for example, Brazil in 2000, Germany in 2001 – despite the evidence that such laws have very little effect, and that the arrival of loan-words can greatly enrich a language (as indeed in the case of English itself, which has a long history of welcome for foreign words; see p. 40).

  However, not everyone is critical. In particular, commercial firms and advertisers are well aware of the potential selling power that the use of English vocabulary can bring. There have been several reports of an increase in sales once a firm has given a product an English name (in much the same way as some products are given foreign names in Britain – such as French names for scent). In Japan, English is even used in television commericals, despite the fact that the majority of viewers would not understand exactly what was being said: the prestige connotations attached to the mere use of English are apparently enough to commend the strategy to the advertisers. Nor is it purely a matter of commerce. In one Dutch town, the leader of a youth club gave his club an English name, and there was an immediate increase in the active interest of the boys in the area.

  Most of the influence of English is upon the vocabulary of foreign languages; but surveys are slowly bringing to light several cases where word order or word structure has been affected. In Spanish, for example, a standard invitation might begin El señor X y señora… (‘Mr X and Mrs…’); but nowadays one often sees El señor y la senõra X (‘Mr and Mrs X’), following English word order. Sentences of the type ‘The book sells well’, using an active construction for a passive meaning, have begun to appear in Danish (Bogen sælger godt). Several languages keep the English plural ending when they make use of a loan word, and do not translate it into the native form, e.g. drinks, callgirls, cocktails. An indefinite article is sometimes used in Swedish sentences like Han är en läkare (He is a doctor), where previously it would not have appeared. English word endings sometimes compete with foreign ones (e.g. eskalation alongside eskalering in Danish). There are many other such cases.

  When English words and constructions are frequently used by foreign speakers, we sometimes get the impression that a ‘mixed’ language has emerged, and this is often given a name which reflects the mixture, such as Franglais, Angleutsch, Spanglish, Swedlish, Japlish, Wenglish (Welsh–English), Anglikaans, and so on. The phenomenon happens only in communities where there is regular contact between p
eople of different language backgrounds who have varying degrees of knowledge of each other’s language. For example, in the parts of Texas bordering on Mexico, the phenomenon of Tex-Mex is often heard – an informal speech style in which English and Spanish words and phrases are combined, as in this fragment of dialogue:

  Dónde está el thin-sliced bread? Where is the thin-sliced bread?

  Está en aisle three, sobre el second shelf, en el wrapper rojo. It’s in aisle three, on the second shelf, in the red wrapper.

  A similar language-mixing was heard at a Welsh railway station:

  Mae’r train o Liverpool yn five minutes yn late. The train from Liverpool is five minutes late.

  Hybrids of this kind are only now beginning to be seriously studied to determine whether there are rules governing the language ‘switching’ that occurs, and what function these switches have. As evidence accumulates, it appears that switching is much more widespread than was previously imagined; indeed, it is probably to be found, in varying degrees, in bilingual communities everywhere, enabling communication to take place satisfactorily. None the less, it is frequently mocked or attacked by purists as an incoherent or debased form of language.

  Social identity