71. Christine Steyn, “Millenarian Tragedies in South Africa: The Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement and the Bulhoek Massacre,” in Wessinger, Millennialism, 189–93; J. B. Peires, The Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement of 1856–7 (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1989). See also Wilson, Magic and the Millennium, 238–40.
72. Steyn, “Millenarian Tragedies, 193–97. See also Robert Edgar, Because They Chose the Plan of God: The Story of the Bulhoek Massacre (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1988); Bengt G. M. Sundkler, Bantu Prophets in South Africa (London: Lutterworth, 1948), 72–73; Wilson, Magic and the Millennium, 61–64; Lewy, Religion and Revolution, 203–5.
73. Leonard E. Barrett, The Rastafarians: Sounds of Cultural Dissonance (Boston: Beacon Press, 1977); Barry Chevannes, Rastafari: Roots and Ideology (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994), 1. The “bright morning” quotation is from Bob Marley’s “Rasta Man Chant”; “get up, stand up” is from Bob Marley’s song by that name. See also Bob Marley’s “Revolution.”
74. Rev. 18:3, 12–13.
75. Lewy, Religion and Revolution, 227.
76. Peter Worsley, The Trumpet Shall Sound: A Study of “Cargo” Cults in Melanesia (New York: Schocken, 1968), esp. 101–8, 207–19; Lamont Lindstrom, “Cargo Cults,” in Richard A. Landes, ed., Encyclopedia of Millennialism and Millennial Movements (New York: Routledge, 2000), 57–61.
77. Shek, “Sectarian Eschatology and Violence”; Naquin, Millenarian Rebellion in China; Yang, Religion in Chinese Society; Lewy, Religion and Revolution, 11–32, 59–66, 254–57; Jonathan D. Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan (New York: Norton, 1997). The quotation is from Franz Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History and Documents (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1971), 2:273.
78. Spence, God’s Chinese Son, 148, 150, 173, 181; Michael, Taiping Rebellion, 2:298 (see also 2:139–41, 312–20).
79. Michael, Taiping Rebellion, 2:183; Spence, God’s Chinese Son, 170, 134.
80. Spence, God’s Chinese Son, 181 (“the road to Heaven”), 234–332; Michael, Taiping Rebellion, 3:1530–32.
81. Some of the classics of the secularization debate (beyond Weber and Durkheim) are Bryan Wilson, Religion in Secular Society: A Sociological Comment (London: C. A. Watts, 1966); Bryan Wilson, Religion in Sociological Perspective (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), esp. 148–79; David Martin, A General Theory of Secularization (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978); David Martin, On Secularization: Towards a Revised General Theory (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2005); Berger, The Social Reality of Religion; Bruce, Religion in the Modern World; Steve Bruce, God Is Dead: Secularization in the West (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002); Stark and Bainbridge, Future of Religion; Rodney Stark and Roger Finke, Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); Hugh McLeod and Werner Ustorf, eds., The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750–2000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); José Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Charles Taylor, A Secular Age (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007).
82. Quoted in Tuveson, Millennium and Utopia, 119, 125.
83. Turgot quoted in Manuel and Manuel, Utopian Thought, 483.
84. Ibid., 461–518.
85. Ruth Scurr, Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006), 230, 232; Maximilien Robespierre, “On the Principles of Political Morality,” February 1794, Fordham University Modern History Sourcebook, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1794robespierre.html (taken from M. Robespierre, Report upon the Principles of Political Morality Which Are to Form the Basis of the Administration of the Interior Concerns of the Republic [Philadelphia, 1794]).
86. Robespierre, “On the Principles of Political Morality”; The Law of 22 Prairial, An II 10 June, 1794, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, https://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/439; Scurr, Fatal Purity, 328, 262.
87. Cf. William Wordsworth, The Prelude, bk. 11, http://www.bartleby.com/145/ww297.html; Wordsworth, The Recluse, bk. 1, “Home at Grasmere,” http://www.bartleby.com/145/ww301.html; M. H. Abrams, Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic Literature (New York: Norton, 1971), 336–38 and passim; and Reinhold Niebuhr, Faith and History: A Comparison of Christian and Modern Views of History (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1949), 2–5 and passim.
88. Oeuvres de Saint-Simon & d’Enfantin (Aalen, DE: Otto Zeller, 1963), 1:121–22; Manuel and Manuel, Utopian Thought, 590–614.
89. See Gianfranco Poggi, Forms of Power (Cambridge: Polity, 2001), 58–122.
90. For a different view, see Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, 300–319; Walzer, Exodus and Revolution, 119–35; J. L. Talmon, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (London: Secker and Warburg, 1952).
91. Rev. 18:7.
92. Robespierre, “On the Principles of Political Morality.”
93. Cf. Martin, General Theory of Secularization; Martin, On Secularization; Malia, History’s Locomotives; Slezkine, Jewish Century.
94. J. L. Talmon, Political Messianism: The Romantic Phase (London: Secker and Warburg, 1960), 265, 266, 269.
95. Karl Marx, “On the Jewish Question,” in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works (New York: International Publishers, 1975–2005), http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/jewish-question/index.htm.
96. Karl Marx, introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, in Marx and Engels, Collected Works, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm (for the quotations beginning with “an anachronism” through this one).
97. Marx, “On the Jewish Question.”
98. Rev. 7:3.
99. Manifesto of the Communist Party, chaps. 1 and 2, Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm#007; Rev. 18:12, 3.
100. Rev. 18:8, 21; Manifesto of the Communist Party, chaps. 2 and 4.
101. Manifesto of the Communist Party, chap. 4.
102. Frederick Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/ch03.htm (“childlike simplicity”); V. I. Lenin, “Tri istochnika i tri sostavnykh chasti marksizma,” Kommunisticheskii universitet, http://www.communi.ru/matireals/university/origins/lenin/3sources_3parts_marksizm.htm.
103. Frederick Engels, Anti-Dühring: Herr Eugen Dühring’s Revolution in Science, Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/introduction.htm; Manifesto of the Communist Party, chap. 2. Engels, “The Principles of Communism,” Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm.
104. Engels, Anti-Dühring, pt. 3, chap. 1, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/ch23.htm.
105. Rev. 19:15, 21:1, 4, 7, 25–27. See also Erik van Ree, Boundaries of Utopia: Imagining Communism from Plato to Stalin (London: Routledge, 2015).
106. Karl Marx, “Critique of the Gotha Programme,” Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch01.htm.
107. Karl Marx, “Critique of Modern German Philosophy according to Its Representatives Feuerbach, B. Bauer and Stirner, and of German Socialism according to Its Various Prophets,” Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01a.htm; Engels, Anti-Dühring, pt. 1, chap. 11, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/ch09.htm.
108. Dante, Paradiso, canto 3, trans. Allen Mandelbaum, Electronic Literature Foundation, http://www.divinecomedy.org/divine_comedy.html. For a different interpretation, see Andrzej Walicki, Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Utopia (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995), 172–79 and passim.
109. George Orwell, 1984, The
Complete Works of George Orwell, http://www.george-orwell.org/1984/22.html.
4. THE REAL DAY
1. Edmund Burke, Thoughts on French Affairs, A Theory of Civilisation, http://ourcivilisation.com/smartboard/shop/burkee/frnchaff/index.htm#Principles. This section is based on Irwin Scheiner’s unpublished essay, “The Revolution in the Restoration,” and many conversations with its author.
2. Crane Brinton, The Anatomy of Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1965), 16–17, 146; Martin Malia, History’s Locomotives: Revolutions and the Making of the Modern World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 299; S. N. Eisenstadt, The Great Revolutions and the Civilizations of Modernity (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 4, 13, 15, 17; Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities.
3. B. S. Capp, The Fifth Monarchy Men: A Study in Seventeenth-Century English Millenarianism (London: Faber and Faber, 1972), 162; Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 10–11; Thomas Case, Two Sermons Lately Preached at Westminster before Sundry of the Honourable House of Commons, Second Sermon (London, 1641; Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1967, Early English Books, 1641–1700; 254:E.165, no. 8), 18, 22. Cf. Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, 10–11 (Walzer cites different page numbers).
4. Ibid., 22.
5. Ibid., 21.
6. Boris Efimov, Desiat’ desiatiletii (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000), 6–29; Viktor Fradkin, Delo Kol’tsova (Moscow: Vagrius, 2002), 24–30; G. Skorokhodov, Mikhail Kol’tsov: Kritiko-biograficheskii ocherk (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1959), 4–17; A. Rubashkin, Mikhail Kol’tsov: Kritiko-biograficheskii ocherk (Leningrad: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1971), 5–9.
7. Mikhail Kol’tsov, Fel’etony i ocherki (Moscow: Pravda, 1956), 17–20.
8. Barrie Martyn, Rachmaninoff: Composer, Pianist, Conductor (Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1990), 257, 269–77; V. Briantseva, S. V. Rakhmaninov (Moscow: Sovetskii kompozitor, 1976), 462–63, 481–89; Iu. Keldysh, Rakhmaninov i ego vremia (Moscow: Muzyka, 1973), 419, 426–30; A. D. Alekseev, Rakhmaninov: Zhizn’ i tvorcheskaia deiatel’nost’ (Moscow: Muzyka, 1964), 181.
9. K. T. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1985), 218–20; K. A. Egon-Besser, “Volia k zhizni, k bor’be,” in O Iakove Sverdlove: Vospominaniia, ocherki, stat’i sovremennikov (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi liteatury, 1985), 104; Vladimir Dmitrevskii, Piatnitskii (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1971), 136; Miklosh Kun, Bukharin: Ego druz’ia i vragi (Moscow: Respublika, 1992), 66; Lev Trotskii, Moia zhizn’: Opyt avtobiografii (Berlin: Granit, 1930), 2:6–7; Deiateli SSSR i revoliutsionnogo dvizhenia Rossii (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1989), 96; A. Chernobaev, V vikhre veka (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1987), 45–47; Al. Arosev, Kak eto proizoshlo (Oktiabrs’skie dni v Moskve) (Moscow: Krasnaia nov’, 1923), 16.
10. Polina Vinogradskaia, Sobytiia i pamiatnye vstrechi (Moscow: Politizdat, 1968), 27 (“rallies lasted”); Al. Arosev, Moskovskii sovet v 1917 g. (Moscow: Ogonek, 1927), 16, 6.
11. Arosev, Moskovskii sovet, 17–18.
12. A. Voronskii, Glaz uragana (Voronezh: Tsentral’no-Chernozemnoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1990), 213–14.
13. Ibid., 167.
14. Arosev quoted in Chernobaev, V vikhre veka, 46; Voronskii, Glaz uragana, 179–80.
15. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, 2:15–16.
16. Voronskii, Glaz uragana, 182.
17. Ibid., 184.
18. Podvoiskii, God 1917 (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1958), 5–15 (the quotations are on 5 and 14–15); E. D. Stasova, Vospominaniia (Moscow: Mysl’, 1969), 135.
19. Podvoiskii, God 1917, 16–18.
20. V. I. Lenin, “Zadachi proletariata v dannoi revoliutsii,” Revoliutsiia i Grazhdanskaia voina, http://www.rusrevolution.info/docs/index.shtml?1; Exod. 32:9; Deut. 32:29.
21. Podvoiskii, God 1917, 20.
22. Voronskii, Glaz uragana, 216–21.
23. Deut. 32:48, 31:16.
24. Stasova, Vospominaniia, 137–38.
25. Vinogradskaia, Sobytiia, 169–70.
26. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 223–46; Egon-Besser, “Volia k zhizni,” 104–5.
27. Arosev, Moskovskii sovet, 8–9, 14–15, 17–18.
28. N. Bukharin, Na podstupakh k Oktiabriu: Stat’i i rechi mai–dekabr’ 1917 (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1926), 25, 28, 33–34.
29. Ibid., 47, 50–51, 132; Shestoi s’’ezd RSDRP (bol’shevikov): Protokoly (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1958), 104, 107–8, 142; Kun, Bukharin, 69–70.
30. N. N. Sukhanov, Zapiski o revoliutsii (Moscow: Respublika, 1992), 3:267; Protokoly tsentral’nogo komiteta RSDRP(b), avgust 1917–fevral’ 1918 (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1958), 83.
31. Sukhanov, Zapiski o revoliutsii, 292–93.
32. Ibid., 289–90.
33. Ibid., 260, 299.
34. A. V. Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia i vpechatleniia (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1968), 171.
35. Kol’tsov, Fel’etony i ocherki, 74–75.
36. Podvoiskii, God 1917, 144–46. On the formation of the canonical memory of October (and the evolution of Podvoisky’s memories), see Frederick Corney, Telling October: Memory and the Making of the Bolshevik Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), esp. 90.
37. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, 2:59.
38. Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, 173; G. A. Bordiugov and E. A. Kotelenets, eds., Revoliutsionnaia Rossiia: 1917 god v pis’makh A. Lunacharskogo i Iu. Martova (Moscow: AIRO-XXI, 2007), 288–90.
39. Ibid., 289; Arosev, Kak eto proizoshlo, 7, 17–18; Moskva: Oktiabr’. Revoliutsiia. Dokumenty i vospominaniia (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1987), 187.
40. Arosev, Kak eto proizoshlo, 7.
41. Arosev, Moskovskii sovet, 16–17, 23, 27–28.
42. Vinogradskaia, Sobytiia, 49; Arosev, Moskovskii sovet, 32.
43. Arosev, Kak eto proizoshlo, 12.
44. K. V. Ostrovitianov, ed., Oktiabr’ v Zamoskvorech’e (Moscow: Goslesbumizdat, 1957), 41, 112–20 (quotation on 117).
45. Arosev, Kak eto proizoshlo, 14–15.
46. “Aleksandr Iakovlevich Arosev,” Istoriia SSSR 4 (1967): 116; Chernobaev, V vikhre veka, 108.
47. E. Dmitrievskaia and V. Dmitrievskii, Rakhmaninov v Moskve (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1993), 137–39; Oskar von Riesemann, Rachmaninoff’s Recollections (New York: Macmillan, 1934), 185–87; Martyn, Rachmaninoff, 257, 289n66.
48. L. D. Trotskii, O Lenine (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1924), 92; V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (hereafter PSS) (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1967–70), 35:162–66; L. G. Protasov, Vserossiiskoe uchreditel’noe sobranie: Istoriia rozhdeniia i gibeli (Moscow: Rosspen, 1997), 263–307; Uchreditel’noe sobranie: Rossiia 1918: Stenogramma i drugie dokumenty (Moscow: Nedra, 1991), 54–64.
49. Uchreditel’noe sobranie, 68.
50. Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, 214–16; Elizaveta Drabkina, Chernye sukhari (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1963), 97; Vinogradskaia, Sobytiia, 176–77.
51. Uchreditel’noe sobranie, 70, 87, 89, 91.
52. Protasov, Vserossiiskoe, 318–19.
53. Trotskii, O Lenine, 106; Mal. 4:1; Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, 214–15.
54. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 305.
55. P. Mal’kov, Zapiski komendanta moskovskogo Kremlia (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1961), 52–67 (the quotations are from 52 and 60); Andrew Ezergailis, The Latvian Impact on the Bolshevik Revolution (Boulder, CO: East European Mongraphs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 1983). I am grateful to Dace Dzenovska for help with all things Latvian.
56. Mal’kov, Zapiski (1961), 104–39; Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 321–31; B. Z. Stankina, “O rabote sekretariata TsK RKP(b) (aprel’ 1918–mart 1919,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 165–70; L. A. Fotieva, “Iz vospominanii o Ia. M. Sverdlove,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 180–82; Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, 213; Drabkina, Chernye sukhari, 162; Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, 2:63, 75–78; B. I. Ivanov, “Ia. M. Sverdlov v turukhanskoi
ssylke,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 115; Vinogradskaia, Sobytiia, 171.
57. Drabkina, Chernye sukhari, 249; Heinrich Heine, Deutschland: A Winter’s Tale, trans. T. J. Reed (London: Angel Books, 1997), 31. The German original, recited by Sverdlov, is Ein neues Lied, ein besseres Lied, O Freunde, will ich euch dichten! Wir wollen hier auf Erden schon Das Himmelreich errichten.
58. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 331–48; S. V. Obolenskaia, interview with author, October 20, 2009.
59. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 334; V. Ia. Sverdlova, “Vsegda s tovarishchami,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 211–15; M. Parkhomovskii, Kniga ob udivitel’noi zhizni Eshua Zolomona Movsheva Sverdlova, stavshego Zinoviem Alekseevichem Peshkovym, i neobyknovennykh liudiakh, s kotorymi on vstrechalsia (Jerusalem: N.p., 1999); Boris Bazhanov, Vospominaniia byvshego sekretaria Stalina (Moscow: III tysiacheletie, 2002), 93–99; Evgeniia Sverdlova, “Slovo ob ottse,” Sovetskaia Rossiia, June 2, 1985, 4; Roi Medvedev, “Slava i tragediia odnoi sem’i,” Karetnyi riad, November 5, 1985; Zinovy Pechkoff, La légion étrangère au Maroc (Paris: Marcelle Lesage éditeur, 1929).
60. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 333–34; V. I. Lenin, State and Revolution, chap. 4, Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/staterev/ch04.htm#s6.
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