75. N. Bukharin, Kommunisticheskoe vospitanie molodezhi (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1925), 54–57; Lenin, “Zadachi soiuzov molodezhi,” in PSS, 41:309–11.
76. N. I. Bukharin, “Finansovyi kapital v mantii papy,” in Etiudy (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe tekhniko–teoreticheskoe izdatel’stvo, 1932), 338, italics in the original.
77. Ibid., 335–38, italics in the original.
78. Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse,” 96–97; Dinershtein, A. K. Voronsky, 272; ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, ll. 32, 42.
79. ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, l. 41ob. For Osinsky’s role in creating the Soviet automobile industry, see Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Cars for Comrades: The Life of the Soviet Automobile (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), 3–4, 37–39, and passim.
80. ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, ll. 31–31ob., 39–39ob.
81. Socialist Planned Economy in the Soviet Union (New York: International Publishers, 1932), 17, 47.
82. Ibid., 80, 81, 98, 100; A. Gaister, Dostizheniia i trudnosti kolkhoznogo stroitel’stva: Diskussiia v Agrarnom institute Kommunisticheskoi Akademii (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Kommunisticheskoi Akademii, 1929), 100 and passim; Inna Shikheeva-Gaister, Deti vragov naroda: Semeinaia khronika vremen kul’ta lichnosti 1925–1953 (Moscow: Vozvrashchenie, 2012), 16–34; “I. A. Kraval’,” Vestnik statistiki 3 (1975): 60–61; E. I. Gruzinova (Kraval’), interview with author, January 16, 1998; RGASPI, f. 17, op. 8, d. 393, ll. 92–94; G. S. Ronina, interview with author, October 1, 1997.
83. AMDNN, “Poloz” file, “Vospominaniia Mirry Varshavskoi,” l. 3; “Astrakhan’”; “Chelkar,” l. 1.
84. Ibid., “Vospominaniia Mirry Varshavskoi,” l. 1; “Chelkar,” ll. 1, 4, 8, and passim.
85. Ibid., “Chelkar,” ll. 2, 6, 8, 10.
86. Ibid., “Chelkar,” ll. 9, 7.
87. Ibid., “Vospominaniia Mirry Varshavskoi,” ll. 3–4.
9. THE ETERNAL HOUSE
1. Andrei Platonov, “Usomnivshiisia Makar,” Biblioteka Komarova, http://www.ilibrary.ru/text/1012/p.1/index.html.
2. GARF, f. 3316, op. 21, d. 717, l. 9.
3. I. Iu. Eigel’, Boris Iofan (Moscow: Stroiizdat, 1978), 19–37; Mikhail Korshunov and Victoria Terekhova, Tainy i legendy Doma na naberezhnoi (Moscow: Slovo, 2002), 239–47.
4. TsAFSB, f. 2, op. 6, d. 230, ll. 34–35.
5. GARF, f. 5446, op. 55, d. 1519, ll. 1, 3–5; TsAFSB, f. 2, op. 6, d. 230, l. 40.
6. TsANTDM f. 2, op. 1, d. 448, ll. 12ob. and 13 ob.; GARF, f. 5446, op. 82, d. 2, l. 328; TsGAMO, f. 66, op. 14, d. 69, ll. 200–203; TsGAMO, f. 66, op. 14, d. 124, ll. 10, 16; TsAFSB, f. 2, op. 6, d. 230, ll. 91–93; GARF, f. 5446, op. 38, d. 10, ll. 228–30; GARF, f. 1235, op. 72, d. 62, ll. 1–8; GARF, f. 3316, op. 24, d. 517, ll. 2–96 (the quotation is on l. 12ob.); T. Shmidt, “Stroitel’stvo Doma TsIK i SNK,” Vestnik arkhivista 1 (2002): 195–202.
7. TsANTDM, f. 2, op. 1, d. 448, ll. 12ob., 13ob., 26; Eigel’, Boris Iofan, 42; Shmidt, “Stroitel’stvo.”
8. TsANTDM, f. 2, op. 1, d. 448, ll. 71–80ob.; Shmidt, “Stroitel’stvo.”
9. B. Iofan, “Postroika doma TsIK I SNK,” Stroitel’stvo Moskvy 10 (1928): 8–10; TsAFSB, f. 2, op. 6, d. 230, l. 71; TsMAM, f. 589, op. 1, d. 29. l. 337.
10. Platonov, “Usomnivshiisia Makar.”
11. TsGAMO, f. 268, op. 1, d. 175, l. 19; d. 31, l. 35; TsAODM, f. 67, op. 1, d. 625, ll. 43–44.
12. GARF, f. 5446, op. 38, d. 10, l. 230; TsMAM, f. 1474, op. 7, d. 50, l. 21; TsAODM, f. 67, op. 1, d. 665, l. 4; TsGAMO, f. 268, op. 1, d. 179, l. 1; TsMAM, f. 1474, op. 7, d. 102, l. 137 (the “powerful tool” quotation); TsGAMO, f. 268, op. 1, d. 175, l. 10 (the activist quotation). Cf. “Our departments are shit, our decrees are shit…. Mistrust of decrees, of institutions, of ‘reorganizations’ and pompous bureaucrats, especially from among Communists; struggle against the swamp of bureaucratism and red tape by means of supervising people and checking the actual work they do; a merciless expulsion of all unneeded officials; a reduction of personnel; and the firing of Communists unwilling to learn the art of governance seriously—such should be the policy of people’s commissars and the Council of People’s Commissars, its chairman and his deputies.” V. I. Lenin, “O perestroike raboty SNK, STO i malogo SNK,” Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1967–70), 44:369–70, Lenin: Revoliutsioner, myslitel’, chelovek, http://leninism.su/works/83-tom-44/999-o-perestrojke-raboty-snk-sto-i-malogo-snk.html; Platonov, “Usomnivshiisia Makar.”
13. TsAODM, f. 67, op. 1, d. 591, l. 32; d. 815, ll. 65–66; TsMAM, f. 1474, op. 7, d. 104, l. 122; TsGAMO, f. 268, op. 1, d. 175, l. 11.
14. TsGAMO, f. 268, op. 1, d. 31, l. 60; Platonov, “Usomnivshiisia Makar.”
15. TsAODM, f. 67, op. 1, d. 735, ll. 9–75 and passim; d. 746, l. 150; d. 755, l. 49; d. 759, l. 96; d. 770, l. 78ob.; TsMAM, f. 1474, op. 7, d. 50, l. 29a; d. 102, l. 242; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1298, l. 3ob.; Z. M. Tuchina, interview with author, September 8, 1998; TsANTDM, f. 2, op. 1, d. 448, ll. 121–31.
16. Platonov, “Usomnivshiisia Makar.”
17. TsAODM, f. 67, op. 1, d. 663, l. 110; d. 733, ll. 93, 185; d. 746, l. 150; Postroika 40 (April 5, 1928) (copy in TsAFSB, f. 2, op. 6, d. 230, l. 89); Stroitel’stvo Moskvy 7 (1928): 13–14 (italics in the original); 8 (1928): 23.
18. GARF, f. 5446, op. 11a, d. 554, ll. 1–64 (quotations on ll. 49 and 64); op. 1, d. 37, l. 45; op. 9, d. 413, ll. 1–15; op. 10, d. 2021, ll. 1–5; op. 13a, d. 981, ll. 1–29; TsAFSB, f. 2, op. 6, d. 230, l. 93.
19. GARF, f. 5446, op. 82, d. 2, ll. 327–28.
20. GARF, f. 5446, op. 11a, d. 554, l. 53; op. 82, d. 2, ll. 26–29, 328ob.; op. 13a, d. 981, ll. 13–18; op. 38, d. 10, ll. 226–34; Shmidt, “Stroitel’stvo.”
21. N. K. Krupskaia, O bytovykh voprosakh (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1930), 16; V. Voeikov, in “Preniia po dokladu M. Ia. Ginzburga,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 1 (1929): 22. See also V. E. Khazanova, Sovetskaia arkhitektura pervoi piatiletki: Problemy goroda budushchego (Moscow: Nauka, 1980), 170–71.
22. M. Okhitovich, “K probleme goroda,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 4 (1929): 130–34; Karl Radek, Portrety i pamflety (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1934), 2:5.
23. A. Zelenko, “Gorod blizhaishikh let,” in Goroda sotsializma i sotsialisticheskaia rekonstruktsiia byta: Sbornik statei (Moscow: Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, 1930), 59–60. See also “Ispol’zovat’ proekty utopistov,” Pravda, December 2, 1929, and L. M. Sabsovich, Sotsialisticheskie goroda (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1930).
24. A. Lunacharskii, “Arkhitekturnoe oformlenie sotsialisticheskikh gorodov,” in Goroda sotsializma, 70.
25. Krupskaia, O bytovykh voprosakh, 30–31.
26. Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch02.htm.
27. N. A. Miliutin, Problema stroitel’stva sotsialisticheskikh gorodov (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1930), 34–35, 39.
28. L. Sabsovich, Sotsialisticheskie goroda (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1930), 75, 48–49.
29. L. Sabsovich, “O proektirovanii zhilykh kombinatov,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 3 (1930): 7–8.
30. Ibid.
31. Sabsovich, Sotsialisticheskie goroda, 73; L. M. Sabsovich, Goroda budushchego i organizatsiia sotsialistcheskogo byta (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe tekhnicheskoe izdatel’stvo, 1929), 35–41 (quotation is on 35).
32. A. Pasternak, “Spory o budushchem goroda,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 1–2 (1930): 58; Aleksandr Pasternak, Vospominaniia (Moscow: Progress-Traditsiia, 2002), 5; Alexander Pasternak, A Vanished Present, ed. and trans. Ann Pasternak Slater (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), xviii. See also M. Okhitovich, “Ne gorod, a novyi tip rasseleniia,” in Goroda sotsializma, 153–55.
33. Sabsovich, Sotsialisticheskie goroda, 20; Pasternak, “Spory o budushchem goroda,” 60; M. Okhitovich, “K probleme goroda,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 4 (1929): 130, 133; M. Okhitovich, “Zametki po teorii rasseleniia,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 1–2 (1930): 10, 14.
35. Okhitovich, “Zametki po teorii rasseleniia,” 12.
36. Ibid., 12–13.
37. Ibid., 15; Pasternak, “Spory o budushchem goroda,” 60.
38. Iu. Larin, Zhilishche i byt (Moscow: Vlast’ sovetov, 1931), 4–5.
39. S. Frederick Starr, Melnikov: Solo Architect in a Mass Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978), 178–79; N. Kuz’min, “Problema nauchnoi organizatsii byta,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 3 (1930): 15.
40. Okhitovich, “Zametki po teorii rasseleniia,” 13; A. Lunacharskii, “Kul’tura v sotsialisticheskikh gorodakh,” in Goroda sotsializma, 82; Kuz’min, “Problema nauchnoi organizatsii byta,” 15.
41. M. M. Zarina, Domovodstvo: Pishcha, zhilishche, odezhda (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1928), 70. The “velvet-covered albums” quotation is from Iurii Libedinskii, Nedelia. Komissary (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1968), pt. 2, chap. 2; see also V. Bazarov’s comment during the discussion of A. Zelenko’s presentation on November 26, 1929, quoted in Khazanova, Sovetskaia arkhitektura pervoi piatiletki, 68 (see also 63–68, 160–61, 203); Victor Buchli, An Archaeology of Socialism (Oxford: Berg, 1999), 44–45; “Preniia po dokladu M. Ia. Ginzburga,” 16–17; Miliutin, Problema stroitel’stva, 39–40.
42. Khazanova, Sovetskaia arkhitektura pervoi piatiletki, 194–95, 186–87; Milka Blizniakov, “Soviet Housing during the Experimental Years, 1918 to 1933,” in William Craft Brumfield and Blair A. Ruble, eds., Russian Housing in the Modern Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 120–25; Anatole Kopp, Town and Revolution: Soviet Architecture and City Planning, 1917–1935 (New York: George Braziller, 1970), 179–84; A. M. Zhuravlev, A. V. Ikonnikov, and A. G. Rochegov, Arkhitektura sovetskoi Rossii (Moscow: Stroiizdat, 1987), 87–88; A. V. Ikonnikov, Arkhitektura Moskvy, XX vek (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1984), 71–72; A. V. Ikonnikov, Arkhitektura XX veka: Utopii i real’nost’ (Moscow: Progress-Traditsiia, 2001), 3, 8–9, 311–12; Ekaterina Sevriukova, “Vozrozhdenie kommuny,” Rossiiskaia gazeta, April 23, 2007 (no. 4348; incl. the Nikolaev quotation).
43. P. Golubkov, “V novom dome (na postroike opytnogo doma-kommuny na Novinskom bul’vare v Moskve),” in Goroda sotsializma, 139–40. See also Buchli, An Archaeology of Socialism, 67–76; Khazanova, Sovetskaia arkhitektura pervoi piatiletki, 171–73; Ikonnikov, Arkhitektura Moskvy, 72.
44. Khazanova, Sovetskaia arkhitektura pervoi piatiletki, 107–8, 176–79, 191–92, 191–93, 201 (the “plastic Puritanism” quotation belongs to Novitsky and is cited on 193).
45. Kuz’min, “Problema nauchnoi organizatsii byta,” 14–15, 15–16; A. Kurella in “Preniia po dokladu M. Ia. Ginzburga,” 12.
46. M. Kol’tsov, “Na poroge svoego doma,” Pravda, May 1, 1930.
47. “Postanovlenie TsK VKP(b) o rabote po perestroike byta,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 1–2 (1930): 3.
48. Arkh. Pasternak, “Problema doma-kommuny,” in Goroda sotsializma, 135 (italics in the original).
49. G. M. Krzhizhanovskii, “K diskussii o genplane,” Planovoe khoziaistvo 2 (1930): 7–8, 18–19.
50. Gwendolyn Wright, Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983), 139–44; Norbert Schoenauer, 6,000 Years of Housing (New York: Norton, 2000), 335–37.
51. Eigel’, Boris Iofan, 37–43, 53–56; Ikonnikov, Arkhitektura Moskvy, 74–77.
52. Lunacharskii, “Arkhitekturnoe oformlenie,” 67–68.
53. A. V. Ikonnikov, Arkhitektura i istioriia (Moscow: Architectura, 1993), 137–38.
54. GARF, f. 5446, op. 1, d. 67; f. 3316, op. 24, d. 517, ll., 32, 95; op. 29, d. 496; Shmidt, “Stroitel’stvo”; M. Kol’tsov, “Moskva-matushka,” in Mikhail Kol’tsov, Vostorg i iarost’ (Moscow: Pravda, 1990), 209–12.
55. B. Strogova, “Moskva—gorod-sprut ili soiuz gorodov?” in Goroda sotsializma, 143–44.
56. GARF, f. 3316, op. 24, d. 517, ll. 3–7, 53–55; TsMAM, f. 694, op. 1, d. 3, ll. 65–66; Dvorets sovetov: Vsesoiznyi konkurs 1932 g. (Moscow: Vsekokhudozhnik, 1933), 6–8; Sona Stephan Hoisington. “‘Ever Higher’: The Evolution of the Project for the Palace of Soviets,” Slavic Review 62, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 41–68; Richard Anderson, “The Future of History: The Cultural Politics of Soviet Architecture, 1928–41,” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2010), 67–71; Karine N. Ter-Akopyan, “The Design and Construction of the Palace of Soviets of the USSR in Moscow,” in Naum Gabo and the Competition for the Palace of Soviets, Moscow 1931–1933 (Berlin: Berlinische Galerie, 1993), 185–96. I am grateful to Katherine Zubovich for her help with this section.
57. Dvorets sovetov, 76, 55–56, 101–3, 106–7.
58. Hoisington. ‘“Ever Higher,’” 57–62; Eigel’, Boris Iofan, 87–93 (the Lunacharasky quotation is on 93); Dvorets sovetov, 59–60; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1298, l. 3ob.; Anderson, “The Future of History,” 71–74; M. V. Mikhailova, interview with author, December 3, 1997.
59. N. Atarov, Dvorets sovetov (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1940), 11, 17–18.
60. Ibid., 19, 109–10.
61. Ibid., 18–19.
62. Ibid., 12.
63. Ibid., 14–15.
64. Ibid., 18; RGASPI, f. 81, op. 3, d. 184, l. 124.
65. For surveys, see Mary A. Nicholas, Writers at Work: Russian Production Novels and the Construction of Soviet Culture (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2010); and Andreas Guski, Literatur und Arbeit: Produktionsskizze und Produktionsroman im Russland des 1. Fünfjahrplans (1928–1932) (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1995).
66. Bruno Iasenskii, Chelovek meniaet kozhu (Moscow: GIKhL, 1960), 425.
67. Valentin Kataev, Vremia, vpered!, in Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1983), 2:302, translation based on Valentin Kataev, Time, Forward!, trans. Charles Malamuth (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961), 73–74; Il’ia Erenburg, Den’ vtoroi (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1935), 9, translation based on Ilya Ehrenburg, Out of Chaos, trans. Alexander Bakshy (New York: Henry Holt, 1934), 7; Leonid Leonov, Sot’ (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1968), 97–98, translation based on Leonid Leonov, The River, trans. Liv Tugde (Moscow: Raduga, 1983), 165–66.
68. Andrey Platonov, The Foundation Pit, trans. Robert Chandler, Elizabeth Chandler, and Olga Meerson (New York: New York Review of Books, 2009), 108, 19.
69. Erenburg, Den’ vtoroi; Andrei Platonov, The Foundation Pit, 9; Kataev, Vremia, vpered!, 281; Fedor Gladkov, Energiia (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1952), 85, 18.
70. Iasenskii, Chelovek meniaet kozhu, 26, 33.
71. A. S. Pushkin, Mednyi vsadnik, Biblioteka Komarova, http://ilibrary.ru/text/451/p.1/index.html (“iz t’my lesov, iz topi blat”); Gladkov, Energiia, 40, 19; Ehrenburg, Den’ vtoroi, 99; Belomorsko-Baltiiskii kanal imeni Stalina (Moscow: OGIZ, 1934), 93; Leonov, Sot’, 48, 7 (86, 20).
72. Kataev, Vremia, vpered!, 460, translation based on Kataev, Time, Forward!, 257.
73. Platonov, The Foundation Pit, 44; Kataev, Vremia, vpered!, 359 (140–41).
74. Kataev, Vremia, vpered!, 251 (12–13).
75. Yuri Olesha, Envy, trans. Marian Schwartz (New York: New York Review of Books), 111, 144–46, 28, 25, 32.
76. Marietta Shaginian, Gidrotsentral’ (Leningrad: Izdatel’stvo pisatelei, 1933), 39–40.
77. Leonov, Sot’, 20, 29, 31 (40, 54, 58).
78. Boris Pilniak, Volga vpadaet v Kaspiiskoe more (Pullman, MI: Russian Language Specialties, 1973; reprint of the 1930 Nedra edition), 68, 62, translation based on Boris Pilnyak, The Volga Flows to the Caspian Sea (London: Peter Davies, 1932), 90, 84.
79. Ibid., 62 (84); Gladkov, Energiia, 126, 184.
80. Gladkov, Energiia, 55.
81. Leonov, Sot’, 280–81, 178, 262 (456–57, 293, 428).
82. Pilniak, Volga vpadaet, 157 (200).
83. Gladkov, Energiia, 164; Platonov, The Foundation Pit, 15, 58, 56–57.
84. Erenburg, Den’ vtoroi, 80–98, 246–52;
translation based on Erenburg, Out of Chaos, 108–30, 357–63.
85. Pilniak, Volga vpadaet, 119, 121, 158 (155–57, 201–2).
86. Gladkov, Energiia, 165, 167, 172.
87. Pilniak, Volga vpadaet, 263–64 (321–22); Leonov, Sot’, 80 (137); Shaginian, Gidrotsentral’, 41–42.
88. Erenburg, Den’ vtoroi, 208–9 (299).
89. Belomorsko-Baltiiskii kanal, 339–40.
90. Erenburg, Den’ vtoroi, 45 (50–51).
91. Gladkov, Energiia, 68–69; Leonov, Sot’, 267 (436); Shaginian, Gidrotsentral’, 173.
92. Erenburg, Den’ vtoroi, 116 (159).
93. Kataev, Vremia, vpered!, 404–5 (193).
94. Ilya Ilf and Evgeny Petrov, The Golden Calf, trans. Konstantin Gurevich and Helen Anderson (Rochester, NY: Open Letter, 2009), 254.
95. Ibid., 256.
96. Ibid., 327.
97. Olesha, Envy, 121–22.
98. Platonov, The Foundation Pit, 59; XVI s’’ezd Vsesoiuznoi kommunisticheskoi partii (b): Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow: Partizdat, 1935), 500; Leonov, Sot’, 175–76 (289, 291).
99. Leonov, Sot’, 176, 288 (291, 468–69).
100. Platonov, The Foundation Pit, 148, 44, 60.
10. THE NEW TENANTS
1. GARF, f. 5446, op. 82, d. 13, ll. 217–18; GARF, f. 3316, op. 25, d. 987, ll. 3–5ob., 8–8ob.; GARF, f. 1235, op. 70, d. 13, ll. 5, 14–16ob.; T. I. Shmidt, Dom na naberezhnoi: Liudi i sud’by (Moscow: Vozvrashchenie, 2009), 14–15, 25–26, 45–47, and passim.
2. E. B. Levina, interview with author, September 27, 1998.
3. RGVA, f. 37461, op. 1, d. 149, l. 93; AMDNN, Museum’s questionnaire, responses by R. N. Gel’man and A. N. Leushina; Natal’ia Dardykina, “Dzhiokonda, kotoruiu ukrali,” Moskovskii komsomolets 21608 (January 22, 2001).
4. Ol’ga Aroseva, Bez grima (Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 1999), 20–21; Natal’ia Aroseva, Sled na zemle: Dokumental’naia povest’ ob ottse (Moscow: Politizdat, 1987), 225–27; O. A. Aroseva, interview with author, January 15, 1998; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 80, ll. 4–14; A. Arosev, Korni (Moscow: OGIZ–GIKhL, 1933), 21.
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