5. V. I. Piatnitskii, comp., Golgofa (St. Petersburg: Palitra, 1993), 18; A. Shitov and Iurii Trifonov, Khronika zhizni i tvorchestva, 1925–1985 (Ekaterinburg: Izdatel’stvo Ural’skogo universiteta, 1997), 74–79.
6. E. I. Zelenskaia, “A. A. Sol’ts,” unpublished manuscript in AMDNN, “Solts” file, 68–70.
7. AMDNN, “Brandenburgsky” file (KP 371/17, KP 3771/18).
8. A. Volkov, Tvorcheskii put’ A. S. Serafimovicha (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1963), 301, 342–48; Grigorii Ershov, Serafimovich: Stranitsy zhizni, bor’by i tvorchestva (Moscow: Sovremennik, 1982), 304–8; A. S. Serafimovich, Sbornik neopublikovannykh proizvedeniii i materialov (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo khudozhestvennoi literatury, 1958), 48–78.
9. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 854, ll. 2–5; N. P. Kerzhentseva, interview with author, January 12, 1998.
10. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 924, ll. 11–12; N. P. Kerzhentseva, interview with author, January 12, 1998.
11. M. A. Usievich, interview with author, January 30, 1998; ARAN, f. 358, op. 3, d. 22; E. Usievich, “Novye formy klassovoi bor’by v sovetskoi literature,” in Sovetskaia literatura na novom etape: Sbornik kriticheskikh statei (Moscow: GIKhL, 1934), 3–32.
12. Mikhail Kol’tsov, kakim on byl: Sbornik vospominanii (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1989), 384–85; Reinhard Müller, “Exil im ‘Wunderland Sowjetunion’—Maria Osten (1908–1942),” Exil: Forschung, Erkenntnisse, Ergebnisse 27, no. 1 (2007): 73–95; Ursula El-Akramy, Transit Moskau: Margarete Steffin und Maria Osten (Hamburg: Europäische Verlangsanstalt, 1998), 79, 94; Viktor Fradkin, Delo Kol’tsova (Moscow: Vagrius, 2002), 95, 99, 176; Boris Medovoi, Mikhail i Mariia (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1991), 73–86, 150; Boris Efimov, interview with author, October 16, 1997.
13. R. Lavrov, “Vidnyi gosudarstvennyi deiatel’,” Sovetskaia kul’tura, May 21, 1964; “Papakha Khalatova,” Sovetskaia torgovlia, May 1, 1990; Deiateli SSSR i revoliutsionnogo dvizhenia Rossii (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1989), 742–43; Gosudarstvennyi teatr detskoi knigi imeni A. B. Khalatova, 1930–1934 (Moscow: Izdanie Teatra detskoi knigi, 1934), 30; Art. Khalatov, Rabotnitsa i obshchestvennoe pitanie (Moscow: Narpit, 1924), 11; S. A. Khalatova, interview with author, September 6, 1998.
14. Evgenii Zhirnov, “Vse proiskhodiashchee so mnoi lozhitsia ten’iu na imia ottsa,” Vlast’ 44, no. 647 (November 7, 2005); Roi Medvedev, “Slava i tragediia odnoi sem’i,” Karetnyi riad 5 (November 1989): 1–6; O. N. Podvoiskaia, interview with author, February 27, 1998; M. A. Lozovskaia, interview with author, March 4, 1998; E. S. Sverdlova, interview with author, February 26, 1998.
15. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 745, l. 20.
16. GARF, f. 5449, op. 1, d. 1, l. 1; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 745, ll. 25, 27 (the quotation is from l. 27); G. B. Ivanova, interview with author, March 13, 1998; GARF, f. P-7013, op. 1 (“Historical Comment”); RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 745, ll. 29–42.
17. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1429, ll. 63–77; G. B. Ivanova, interview with author, March 13, 1998.
18. RGASPI, f. 559, op. 1, d. 141, ll. 18–19ob., 33; RGASPI, f. 559, op. 1, d. 132, l. 55.
19. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1308, ll. 6–6ob., 25–36; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 2, d. 345, l. 2; V. E. Baranchenko, Stoikost,’ neutomimost’, otvaga (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1988), 48; ARAN, f. 528, op. 2, d. 1, l. 4; op. 4, d. 86, ll. 11, 15.
20. Inna Shikheeva-Gaister, Deti vragov naroda: Semeinaia khronika vremen kul’ta lichnosti 1925–1953 (Moscow: Vozvrashchenie, 2012), 16–17; I. A. Gaister, interview with author, September 30, 1997; E. I. Gruzinova (Kraval’), interview with author, January 16, 1998; G. S. Ronina, interview with author, October 1, 1997.
21. ARAN, f. 528, op. 4, d. 86, l. 19; AMDNN, “Kisis” file, letter from E. R. Kisis, 10; Warren Lerner, Karl Radek: The Last Internationalist (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1970), 156–57; V. A. Artemov, Karl Radek: Ideiia i sud’ba (Voronezh: TsChKI, 2000), 161–63; Karl Radek, Portrety vreditelei (Moscow: OGIZ, 1931), 29.
22. T. I. Smilga, interview with author, January 19, 1998.
23. G. A. Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse posylaiut puliu,” Istoricheskii arkhiv 1 (1997): 98–101; E. A. Dinershtein, A. K. Voronskii v poiskakh zhivoi vody (Moscow: Rosspen 2001), 302–10.
24. R. M. Poloz, interview with author, June 28, 1998; AMDNN, “Poloz” file.
25. RGASPI, f. 613, op. 3, d. 193, ll. 1–5, 9; V. B. Volina, interview with author, September 18, 1997.
26. S. Moroz, “Minuvshee,” 2–4, and S. Moroz, “V dome tom …,” 5, both in AMDNN, “Moroz” file.
27. AMDNN, “Podvoisky” file; Mikhail Korshunov and Victoria Terekhova, Tainy i legendy Doma na naberezhnoi (Moscow: Slovo, 2002), 9–27; O. A. Aroseva, interview with author, January 15, 1998; V. B. Volina, interview with author, September 18, 1997; S. A. Khalatova, interview with author, September 6, 1998; O. N. Podvoiskaia, interview with author, February 27, 1998; N. P. Kerzhentseva, interview with author, January 12, 1998; and G. B. Ivanova, interview with author, March 13, 1998.
28. Korshunov and Terekhova, Tainy i legendy, 10; Shikheeva-Gaister, Deti vragov naroda, 23; Z. M. Tuchina, interview with author, September 8, 1998; V. N. Rabichev, interview with author, April 14, 1998; G. S. Ronina, interview with author, October 1, 1997; G. B. Ivanova, interview with author, March 13, 1998.
29. GARF, f. 3316, op. 24, d. 517, ll. 2–96.
30. O. Shmidt, Zamoskvorech’e: Iakimanskaia chast’ (Moscow: Gosudarstvennaia publichnaia istoricheskaia biblioteka Rossii, 1999), 31–44; E. I. Kirichenko, Khram Khrista Spasitelia v Moskve: Istoriia proektirovaniia i sozdaniia sobora 1813–1931 (Moscow: Planeta, 1992), 216–70; I. Evsenin, Ot fabrikanta k Krasnomu Oktiabriu (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo VTsSPS, 1927), 80; Korshunov and Terekhova, Tainy i legendy, 289; E. R. Kisis, “Pis’mo v muzei,” 5, in AMDNN, “Kisis” file; Z. M. Tuchina, interview with author, September 8, 1998.
31. Korshunov and Terekhova, Tainy i legendy, 291; RGASPI, f. 559, op. 1, d. 132, l. 45; Shikheeva-Gaister, Deti vragov naroda, 24.
32. GARF, f. 3316, op. 43, d. 593, l. 8; d. 911, ll. 5–7, 20ob.–22ob.
33. E. E. Ivchenko, interview with author, September 23, 1998. Copies of Emelian and Anna Ivchenko’s official autobiographies are in the author’s possession.
34. GARF, f. 3316, op. 43, d. 911, l. 19ob.; Korshunov and Terekhova, Tainy i legendy, 18; Z. M. Tuchina, interview with author, September 8, 1998.
35. GARF, f. 331.6, op. 43, d. 911, l. 20ob.–34ob.; f. 9542, op. 1, d. 19, l. 61; Korshunov and Terekhova, Tainy i legendy, 291.
36. GARF, f. 3316, op. 43, d. 593, ll. 9ob., 23–24, 33; d. 801, ll. 6, 33–35; 40–41; f. 9542, op. 1, d. 19, ll. 58–63.
37. GARF, f. 3316, op. 25, d. 686, ll. 12–162; RGASPI, f. 559. op. 1, d. 132, l. 39ob.
38. RGALI, f. 2310, op. 1, d. 19, ll. 10, 15. See also AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 90; GARF, f. 3316, op. 25, dd. 690, 1038.
39. F. N. Kaverin, Vospominaniia i teatral’nye rasskazy (Moscow: VTO, 1964), 19–20.
40. Ibid., 81 (the “flooding” quotation), 20–21.
41. Aleksandr Kron, Vechnaia problema (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1969), 259–65. The Ruben Simonov quotation is from B. G. Golubovskii, Bol’shie malen’kie teatry (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo imeni Sabashnikovykh, 1998), 97.
42. AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 446, ll. 9, 14, 18, 20; Kaverin, Vospominaniia, 221.
43. Kaverin, Vospominaniia, 38.
44. Ibid., 117.
45. Ibid., 39, 37.
46. Ibid., 266–74. See also Golubovskii, Bol’shie malen’kie teatry, 99; N. A. Smirnova, Vospominaniia (Moscow: VTO, 1947), 405–9; RGALI, f. 645, op. 1, d. 267, l. 13b; RGALI, f. 649, op. 1, d. 530, l. 7; AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 1283, l. 2.
47. L. D. Snezhnitskii, “Rezhisserskie iskaniia F. N. Kaverina,” in Kaverin, Vospominaniia, 369–70, 374–77; Smirnova, Vospominaniia, 407–12 (the quotation is on 411); RGALI, f. 656, op. 1, d. 3134, l. 68 (the censor’s comments).
48. RGALI, f. 645, op. 1, d. 267, ll. 13a; AGTsTM, f. 454, d
. 1379, l. 2; d. 1285, ll. 6–8; Snezhnitskii, “Rezhisserskie iskaniia,” 380–82.
49. AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 447, l. 4.
50. Ibid., ll. 5, 7, 10–11.
51. Ibid., ll. 4–5, 11; d. 1285, l. 5.
52. A. Artizov and Oleg Naumov, eds., Vlast’ i khudozhestvennaia intelligentsiia (Moscow: Fond “Demokratiia,” 1999), 173; GARF, f. 3316, op. 25, d. 690, ll. 12–14; RGALI, f. 645, op.1. d. 299, l. 6; AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 1285, l. 16; d. 1292, no list numbers (Sovetskoe iskusstvo 52 [November 15, 1932]).
53. AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 512, ll. 22–25, 58–62, 66, 113.
54. Smirnova, Vospominaniia, 424–25; Golubovskii, Bol’shie malen’kie teatry, 104.
55. RGALI, f. 656, op.1, d. 2693, ll. 8, 67, 73–79, and passim; f. 2310, op. 1, d. 19, l. 27.
56. RGALI, f. 656, op.1, d. 2693, l. 79.
57. Ibid., l. 2; RGALI, f. 2310, op.1, d. 19, ll. 12, 30, 44, 39–40.
58. RGALI, f. 2310, op.1, d. 19, ll. 64–65, 25–26.
59. Ibid., ll. 5, 80, 8.
60. RGALI, f. 2310, op.1, d. 19, l. 3a.
61. Ibid., ll. 59–60, 62–63, 50, 55; RGALI, f. 649, op. 2, d. 498, l. 1 (on Boichevskaia).
62. N. I. Bukharin, Ekonomika perekhodnogo perioda, in Bukharin, Problemy teorii i praktiki sotsializma (Moscow: Politizdat, 1989), 165–66.
63. Ibid., 70.
64. Ibid., 71–72.
11. THE ECONOMIC FOUNDATIONS
1. J. V. Stalin, Problems of Leninism (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1953), 528–29. Cf. I. V. Stalin, Sochineniia (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1951), 13:37–38. For an overview, see David R. Shearer, Industry, State, and Society in Stalin’s Russia, 1926–1934 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996); for a classic history and interpetation, see Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as Civilization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
2. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1298, ll. 3–5; d. 1301, ll. 4–4ob.; AMDNN, “Mikhailov” file (letters from M. N. Kul’man); Anne D. Rassweiler, The Generation of Power: The History of Dneprostroi (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 128; M. V. Mikhailova, “Mariia Nikolaevna Kul’man,” Muzei “Dom na naberezhnoi,” http://museumdom.narod.ru/bio10/kulman.html; M. V. Mikhailova, interview with author, December 3, 1997.
3. N. S. Khrushchev, Vremia, liudi, vlast’ (vospominaniia) (Moscow: Moskovskie novosti, 1999), 1:38–91; William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003), 72–113. On the Moscow Metro, see Josette Bouvard, Le Métro de Moscou: La contruction d’un mythe soviétique (Paris: Sextant, 2005); and Dietmar Neutatz, Die Moskauer Metro: Von den ersten Plänen bis zur Grossbaustelle des Stalinismus (Cologne: Bohlau, 2001).
4. Il’ia Zbarskii, Ob’’ekt No. 1 (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000), 60, 122, 126, 128–30.
5. K. Paustovskii, Velikan na Kame: Na stroike Bereznikovskogo kombinata (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe khimiko–tekhnicheskoe izdatel’stvo, 1934); O. D. Gaisin, “Opyt proektirovaniia sotsgoroda Berezniki (1930–40 gg.),” Nasledie.perm.ru, http://nasledie.perm.ru/pages002.htm; I. T. Sidorova, “Stroitel’stvo predpriiatii khimicheskoi promyshlennosti v SSSR na etape industrializatsii 1928–1932 gg. (na primere Bereznikovskogo khimicheskogo kombinata)” (PhD diss., Perm’, Permskii gosudarstvennyi tekhnicheskii universitet, 2011), 28–42, 54 (quotation is from 42); “Bereznikovskii khimkombinat,” SSSR na stroike 5 (1932).
6. Z. Kh. Tsukerman, “Vospominaniia,” in Istoricheskii ocherk o Bereznikovskom azotno–tuko-vom zavode im. K. E. Voroshilova (Arkhiv muzeiia trudovoi slavy filiala “Azot” OAO “OkhK” “Uralkhim” in Berezniki, manuscript), 214–15, 238. All the unpublished materials on the Berezniki Chemical Works were sent to me by I. T. Sidorova. I am very grateful for her generosity and expert advice.
7. Verkhnekam’e: istoriia v litsakh: Konovalovskie chteniia (Berezniki, 2001), 4:204; Anatoly Granovsky, I Was an NKVD Agent (New York: Devin-Adair, 1962), 3–13 (the quotation is on 12–13).
8. Varlam Shalamov, “Vizit mistera Poppa,” in Shalamov, Sobranie sochinenii v chetyrekh tomakh (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, Vagrius, 1998), 2:255, http://shalamov.ru/library/5/27.html; Sidorova, “Stroitel’stvo predpriiatii,” 93–106; M. M. Fedorovich, in Istoricheskii ocherk, 174.
9. Sidorova, “Stroitel’stvo predpriiatii,” 54–82 (the quotations are from 79–80).
10. Ibid., 78, 107–8; A. B. Suslov, Spetskontingent v Permskoi oblasti: 1929–1953 gg. (Ekaterinburg and Perm’: Ural’skii gosudarstvennyi universitet and Permskii gosudarstvennyi pedagogicheskii universitet, 2003), 126–30.
11. Sidorova, “Stroitel’stvo predpriiatii,” 77, 109–13, 208; Suslov, Spetskontingent, 64–66; M. B. Smirnov, ed., Sistema ispravitel’no–trudovykh lagerei v SSSR, 1923–1960 (Moscow: Zven’ia, 1998), 25–27, 184–85; V. Shmyrov, “K probleme stanovleniia GULAGa (Vishlag),” in Gody terrora: Kniga pamiati zhertv politicheskikh repressii (Perm’: Izdatel’stvo Zdravstvui, 1998), 75–77.
12. Varlam Shalamov, Vishera, Shalamov.ru, http://shalamov.ru/library/16/3.html.
13. Ibid., http://shalamov.ru/library/16/5.html.
14. Ibid., http://shalamov.ru/library/16/2.html.
15. Smirnov, Sistema ispravitel’no–trudovykh lagerei, 27; A. I. Kokurin and N. V. Petrov, eds., GULAG (Glavnoe upravlenie lagerei), 1918–1960 (Moscow: Fond “Demokratiia,” 2000), 222–26.
16. Shalamov, Vishera, http://shalamov.ru/library/16/6.html.
17. Ibid.
18. Belomorsko-Baltiiskii kanal, 70–75; N. V. Petrov and K. V. Skorkin, eds., Kto rukovodil NKVD 1934–1941: Spravochnik (Moscow: Zven’ia, 1999), 108–9.
19. Shalamov, Vishera, http://shalamov.ru/library/16/5.html.
20. Ibid.
21. Sidorova, “Stroitel’stvo predpriiatii,” 58–60.
22. S. I. Iur’ev, “Vospominaniia,” in Istoricheskii ocherk, 1–2 (also listed as Arkhiv muzeia trudovoi slavy filiala “Azot” OAO “OkhK” “Uralkhim” in Berezniki, op. 1, d. 102, ll. 1–2); Nemtsy v Prikam’e. XX v.: Sbornik dokumentov i materialov v 2kh tomakh, vol. 1, bk. 1: Arkhivnye dokumenty (Perm’: Pushka, 2006), 155; Fedorovich, in Istoricheskii ocherk, 169, 174; Tsukerman, in Istoricheskii ocherk, 241; Shalamov, Vishera, http://shalamov.ru/library/16/6.html.
23. Verkhnekam’e: istoriia v litsakh, 204; Smirnov, Sistema ispravitel’no–trudovykh lagerei, 27, 184; Shmyrov, “K probleme stanovleniia GULAGa,” 85; Sidorova, “Stroitel’stvo predpriiatii,” 120; Granovsky, I Was an NKVD Agent, 21–23.
24. G. P. Sidegova, Arkhiv muzeia trudovoi slavy filiala “Azot” OAO “OkhK” “Uralkhim” in Berezniki, audio archive; Granovsky, I Was an NKVD Agent, 8.
25. Granovsky, I Was an NKVD Agent, 24.
26. Fedorovich, in Istoricheskii ocherk, 178.
12. THE VIRGIN LANDS
1. I. V. Stalin, “God velikogo pereloma,” in Sochineniia, vol. 12, Marxists Internet Archive Library, https://www.marxists.org/russkij/stalin/t12/t12_06.htm.
2. I. V. Stalin, “K voprosam agrarnoi politiki v SSSR. Rech’ na Konferentsii agrarnikov-marksistov,” in Sochineniia, vol. 12, https://www.marxists.org/russkij/stalin/t12/t12_10.htm; V. Danilov, R. Manning, L. Viola, eds., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni: Kollektivizatsiia i raskulachivanie (Moscow: Rosspen, 2000), 2:126–30.
3. Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 2:126–30, 163–67, 1:727–29; N. A. Ivnitskii, Repressivnaia politika sovetskoi vlasti v derevne, 1928–1933 gg. (Moscow: Institut istorii RAN), 131; Lynne Viola, The Unknown Gulag: The Lost World of Stalin’s Special Settlements (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 32 and passim; Viktor Kondrashin, Golod 1932–1933 godov: Tragediia rossiiskoi derevni (Moscow: Rosspen, 2008), 76.
4. Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 2:299.
5. On agricultural statistics, see Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “O zernovykh balansakh i otsenkakh urozhainosti v SSSR v 1931–1933,” in Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:842–65; Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “O demografisheskikh svidetel’stvakh tragedii sovetskoi derevni v 1931–1933 gg,” in Danilov
et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:866–67; V. P. Danilov, “Vvedenie,” in Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 1:17; R. W. Davies and Stephen G. Wheatcroft, The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931–33 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 123–36, 239–49, and passim. The Bak quotations are from Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:394–97; the decree of August 7, 1932, is in Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:453–44. For a discussion of the “excess deaths” during the famine, see Davies and Wheatcroft, Years of Hunger, 412–20. Wheatcroft’s own estimate (on 415) is about 5.7 million deaths.
6. Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:588–97; Kolektyvizatsyia i golod na Ukraini, 1929–1933 (Kiev: Naukova dumka, 1993), 573–76.
7. I. E. Zelenin, Stalinskaia “revoliutsiia sverkhu”posle “Velikogo pereloma” 1930–1939: Politika, osushchestvlenie, rezul’taty (Moscow: Nauka, 2006), 95; Pravda, May 26, 1964.
8. N. S. Khrushchev, Vremia, liudi, vlast’ (vospominaniia) (Moscow: Moskovskie novosti, 1999), 1:32, 71.
9. Davies and Wheatcroft, Years of Hunger, 113–14, 118, 145; S. Kul’chitskii, “Obshchii i regional’nyi podkhody k istorii velikoi tragedii narodov Rossii i Ukrainy,” in Sovremennaia rossiisko-ukrainskaia istoriografiia goloda 1932–1933 gg. v SSSR (Moscow: Rosspen, 2011), 160; Oleg Khlevniuk, Khoziain: Stalin i utverzhdenie stalinskoi diktatury (Moscow: Rosspen, 2010), 186–87; Nikolai Zen’kovich, Elita: Samye sekretnye rodstvenniki (Moscow: Ol’ma-Press, 2005), 305.
10. Davies and Wheatcroft, Years of Hunger, 91, 147, 325. See also Gerald Easter, Reconstructing the State: Personal Networks and Elite Identity in Soviet Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 117–32; Kondrashin, Golod 1932–1933 godov, 83–84.
11. Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 1:699, 2:137–38; Iudit Agracheva, “Chlen partii s 1903 goda,” Vesti-2 (Israel), June 1, 1995, 10; G. S. Ronina, interview with author, October 1, 1997; A. M. Larina, Nezabyvaemoe (Moscow: APN, 1989), 268; ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, l. 54 ob.; Oleg Khlevniuk, Khoziain: Stalin i utverzhdenie stalinskoi diktatury (Moscow: Rosspen, 2010), 57–72 (quotations from 60 and 70).
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