The Indian World of George Washington
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8. Dinwiddie Papers 2:292, 294–96, 313–15, 319–22, 336–37, 382 (“nothing essential”); PGW, Col. 2:214, 235, 278, 290, 334 (“apprehensions”), 344 (“nothing essential”); Executive Journals 6:673; Wood, “ ‘I Have Now Made a Path to Virginia’ ” (Shawnee campaign at 39–43); Matthew C. Ward, Breaking the Backcountry: The Seven Years’ War in Virginia and Pennsylvania, 1754–1765 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003), 104–5.
9. John E. Ferling, The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 43–45.
10. PGW, Col. 2:333, 337, 3:1, 33, 59–60; Dinwiddie Papers 2:383–85.
11. Robert L. Jolley, “Fort Loudon, Virginia: A French and Indian War Period Fortification Constructed by George Washington,” in The Archaeology of French and Indian War Frontier Forts, ed. Lawrence E. Babits and Stephanie Gandulla (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2013), 102–21; Norman L. Baker, Fort Loudon: Washington’s Fort in Virginia (Winchester, VA: French and Indian War Foundation, 2006); Rufus Rockwell Wilson, ed., Burnaby’s Travels through North America (New York: A. Wessels, 1904), 74–75.
12. PGW, Col. 2:333–35, 338, 3:45.
13. Kristofer Ray, “Cherokees and Franco-British Confrontation in the Tennessee Corridor, 1730–1760,” Native South 7 (2014): 33–67; WJP 9:569–81, 596–98 (Kerlerec’s negotiations and treaty), 613 (Silver Heels).
14. Duane H. King, ed., The Memoirs of Lt. Henry Timberlake: The Story of a Soldier, Adventurer, and Emissary to the Cherokees, 1756–1765 (Cherokee, NC: Museum of the Cherokee Indian Press, 2007), 37.
15. David H. Corkran, The Cherokee Frontier: Conflict and Survival, 1740–62 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), 67 (carriage); Tortora, Carolina in Crisis, 30; John Oliphant, Peace and War on the Anglo-Cherokee Frontier, 1756–1765 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001), 22 (stayed with Jeffersons).
16. CO 5/17, pt. 3:370–77; Edith Mays, ed., Amherst Papers, 1756–1763: The Southern Sector: Dispatches from South Carolina, Virginia and His Majesty’s Superintendent of Indian Affairs (Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, 1999), 1–5; Dinwiddie Papers 2:389–91 (instructions to Lewis and message to Cherokees); PGW, Col. 3:43. On Cherokee desires for a fort and relations at Fort Loudon, see Daniel Ingram, Indians and British Outposts in Eighteenth-Century America (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2012), ch. 1.
17. CO 5/17, pt. 3:377 (Ostenaco, referred to here as Outacite); McDowell, Colonial Records of South Carolina: Documents relating to Indian Affairs, 1754–1756, 107–8 (Hagler), 137–38 (Attakullakulla), 277–79 (Ostenaco), 290–91 (Dinwiddie), 480 (Lyttelton).
18. On Attakullakulla’s French connections, see McDowell, Colonial Records of South Carolina: Documents relating to Indian Affairs, 1750–1754, 71, 80, 101–2, 183, 223, 263; McDowell, Colonial Records of South Carolina: Documents relating to Indian Affairs, 1754–1756, 144 (Demere’s assessment), 148, 200, 205, 241.
19. McDowell, Colonial Records of South Carolina: Documents relating to Indian Affairs, 1750–1754, 434.
20. PGW, Col. 3:42, 56.
21. PGW, Col. 3:397–98.
22. PGW, Col, 3:107, 444.
23. Douglas Southall Freeman, Washington, 1-vol. abridgement by Richard Harwell of the 7-vol. George Washington (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), 120.
24. PGW, Col. 3:308, 397 (“Tusks”); Executive Journals 6:38–39 (“heartily accepted”). On the earlier conflict, see David LaVere, The Tuscarora War: Indians, Settlers, and the Fight for the Carolina Colonies (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014).
25. Dinwiddie Papers 2:442–46, 454, 484, 491, 493, 507, 539, 545, 548–50, 616, 620, 623, 625, 627, 629–33, 640–41, 657, 713.
26. Bouquet Papers 1:168, 173; McDowell, Colonial Records of South Carolina: Documents relating to Indian Affairs, 1754–1756, 434–35; Corkran, Cherokee Frontier, ch. 5.
27. JHBV, 1752–58, 320 (bounty extended); Ian K. Steele, Setting All the Captives Free: Capture, Adjustment, and Recollection in Allegheny Country (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2013), 264–65 (equivalent three months labor); PGW, Col. 3:405, 4:16, 29, 129, 163, 249; Dinwiddie Papers 2:605, 607, 616, 620 (“barbarous Method”), 623, 625, 656.
28. PGW, Col. 2:334.
29. JHBV, 1752–58, 473–75.
30. EAID 3:21, 27; CRP 7:88–89; C. Hale Sipe, The Indian Wars of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, PA: Telegraph Press, 1929), 281–83; Daniel P. Barr, “ ‘This Land Is Ours and Not Yours’: The Western Delawares and the Seven Years’ War in the Upper Ohio Valley, 1755–1758,” in The Boundaries between Us: Natives and Newcomers along the Frontiers of the Old Northwest Territory, 1750–1850, ed. Daniel P. Barr (Kent, OH; Kent State University Press, 2006), 36; Henry J. Young, “A Note on Scalp Bounties in Pennsylvania,” Pennsylvania History 24 (1957): 209–11; Peter Silver, Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York: Norton, 2008), 161–68; Steele, Setting All the Captives Free, 102 (no women captured), 266–67.
31. Ferling, The First of Men, 46; John E. Ferling, The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon (New York: Bloomsbury, 2009), 34; “Adam Stephen’s Council of War [at Fort Cumberland] and George Washington’s Comments,” Oct. 30, 1756, Huntington Library, Loudon Papers, box 48, #4 (“unsuitable for Defense”; thanks to Kris Ray for furnishing me a copy) and PGW, Col. 3:447–52; PGW, Col. 3:45–46, 48–51, 4:4; David Clary, George Washington’s First War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010), 203–6; Bernhard Knollenberg, George Washington: The Virginia Period, 1732–1775 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1964), ch. 9.
32. Daniel P. Barr, “Victory at Kittanning? Reevaluating the Impact of Armstrong’s Raid on the Seven Years’ War in Pennsylvania,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 131 (2007): 5–32; Brady J. Crytzer, War in the Peaceable Kingdom: The Kittanning Raid of 1756 (Yardley, PA: Westholme, 2016).
33. Helen Hornbeck Tanner, ed., Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 46–47, 62; Steele, Setting All the Captives Free, 105; PTJ 2:99, 102; Michael N. McConnell, “Kuskusky Towns and Early Pennsylvania Indian History, 1748–1778,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 116 (Jan. 1992): 48, 50.
34. Executive Journals 6:20–21; PGW, Col. 4:50–51; Knollenberg, George Washington: The Virginia Period, 41–42.
35. PGW, Col. 4:79–90, quote at 82–83.
36. James Thomas Flexner, George Washington: The Forge of Experience, 1732–1775 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1965), 165–75; Ferling, The Ascent of George Washington, 37–38 (gambling and shopping).
37. PGW, Col. 4:132–33.
38. PGW, Col. 4:136.
39. Clary, George Washington’s First War, 196–97.
40. Wilbur R. Jacobs, Wilderness Politics and Indian Gifts: The Northern Colonial Frontier, 1748–1763 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966); Gregory Evans Dowd, “ ‘Insidious Friends’: Gift Giving and the Cherokee-British Alliance in the Seven Years’ War,” in Contact Points: American Frontiers from the Mohawk Valley to the Mississippi, 1750–1830, ed. Andrew R. L. Cayton and Fredrika J. Teute (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 114–50; Jessica Yirush Stern, The Lives in Objects: Native Americans, British Colonists, and Cultures of Labor and Exchange in the Southeast (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017), ch. 3, esp. 100–101, 106; Corkran, Cherokee Frontier, 129; Ward, Breaking the Backcountry, 104, 141–45.
41. Jacobs, Wilderness Politics and Indian Gifts, 167; Dinwiddie Papers 2:283, 469, 605–6, 639.
42. PGW, Col. 4:139–41; Mays, Amherst Papers, 10–14.
43. PGW, Col. 4:163; Dinwiddie Papers 2:640–41.
44. Bouquet Papers 1:397.
45. Edward P. Hamilton, ed., Adventure in the Wilderness: The American Journals of Louis Antoine de Bougainville, 1756–1760 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964, 1990), 148–49 (“without cavalry”), 163–65, 170 (“necessary evil”), 169–75; Ian K. Steele, Betr
ayals: Fort William Henry and the “Massacre” (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
46. NYCD 7:782 (ensign), 10:582–84 (Vaudreuil).
47. James H. Merrell, The Indians’ New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal, 2nd ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 162.
48. Executive Journals 6:31–33.
49. PGW, Col. 4:168–69; see also Dinwiddie Papers 2:633.
50. Wilbur R. Jacobs, ed., The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1967), quotes at 3, 38.
51. PGW, Col. 4:154; Dinwiddie Papers 2:622–23.
52. PGW, Col. 4:171–72.
53. PGW, Col. 2:151.
54. PGW, Col. 4:175, 183–84; Mays, Amherst Papers, 35–46.
55. PGW, Col. 4:198–99.
56. PGW, Col. 4:200, 208–9, 215–16; Corkran, Cherokee Frontier.
57. PGW, Col. 4:225, 261, 263 (“scourge”), 271, 285, 307–8.
58. PGW, Col. 5:2–3, 44–45.
59. PGW, Col. 5:20, 52–53; Dinwiddie Papers 2:707–9, 715–16.
60. Flexner, George Washington: The Forge of Experience, 184.
61. PGW, Col. 5:86.
62. Edward G. Lengel, General George Washington: A Military Life (New York: Random House, 2005), 62, 65.
63. PGW, Col. 5:33.
64. PGW, Col. 5:10, 100–101.
65. Matthew P. Dziennik, The Fatal Land: War, Empire, and the Highland Soldier in British America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015), 47.
66. John Oliphant, John Forbes: Scotland, Flanders and the Seven Years’ War, 1707–1759 (London: Bloomsbury, 2015); Douglas R. Cubbison, The British Defeat of the French in Pennsylvania, 1758: A Military History of the Forbes Campaign against Fort Duquesne (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2010), 10–14.
67. James Titus, The Old Dominion at War: Society, Politics, and Warfare in Late Colonial Virginia (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1992), 122.
68. Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 (New York: Knopf, 2000), 229; Knollenberg, George Washington: The Virginia Period, 63.
69. PGW, Col. 5:117.
70. Tinling, Correspondence of the Three William Byrds 2:607, 638–45, 647–52 (“great difficulty” at 651), 655–57; Forbes HQ Papers, reel 1, items 43–45, 88, 158 “(“haunted”, “squaws,” and “dream”); Executive Journals 6:92–93. William Byrd II’s famous sexual exploits are recorded in Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling, eds., The Secret Diary of William Byrd of Westover, 1709–1712 (Richmond, VA: Dietz Press, 1941).
71. Bouquet Papers 2:304.
72. Forbes HQ Papers, reel 1, items 110, 124 (“in want”), 133–34 (return of the Southern Indians at Winchester), 135 (“everything in my power”); Alfred Proctor James, ed., The Writings of General John Forbes relating to his service in North America (Menasha, WI; Collegiate Press, 1938), 65, 68–71 (“turn me into a Cherokee” at 70–71), 74–75, 77–78.
73. Douglas R. Cubbison, On Campaign against Fort Duquesne: The Braddock and Forbes Expeditions, 1755–1758, through the Experiences of Quartermaster Sir John St. Clair (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2015), ch. 7.
74. Cubbison, British Defeat of the French in Pennsylvania, 81–85; Forbes HQ Papers, reel 2, items 163, 166, 205, 208, 229, 234, 237, 242, 247, 250.
75. “A Compilation of Indian Trade Goods Presented to the Cherokee and Catawba Warriors during the Forbes Campaign,” in Cubbison, British Defeat of the French in Pennsylvania, 199–211.
76. PGW, Col. 5:117, 123n3 (numbers of Indian parties coming and going), 131, 138, 148.
77. Forbes HQ Papers, reel 1, item 132.
78. PGW, Col. 5:154–56.
79. Forbes HQ, reel 2, items 171 (“Cowards”), 234; James, Writings of General John Forbes, 83–84; PGW, Col. 5:165–66n, 177.
80. PGW, Col. 5:175–78.
81. Forbes HQ Papers, reel 2, items 336, 404; EAID 3:640 (“since we were created”); EAID 2:240 (“very Bones”).
82. Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700–1763 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1990), 93–115; EAID 3: ch. 3.
83. James H. Merrell, Into the American Woods: Negotiators on the Pennsylvania Frontier (New York: Norton, 1999), 238–42.
84. EAID 3:233–302 (wampum belt at 285); Wallace, King of the Delawares, 155–59.
85. Boulware, Deconstructing the Cherokee Nation, 100–101; Forbes HQ Papers, reel 1, items 97, 99 (“disgusting”).
86. EAID 3:383.
87. EAID 3:386–88, 391–93.
88. James, Writings of General John Forbes, 91–92, 102.
89. Forbes HQ Papers, reel 2, items 232, 240, 287, 298, 303.
90. Paul Kelton, Cherokee Medicine, Colonial Germs: An Indigenous Nation’s Fight against Smallpox, 1518–1824 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2015), 110–11.
91. Forbes HQ Papers, reel 2, items 238, 239, 298.
92. Kelton, “British and Indian War,” 777; Forbes HQ Papers, reel 2, item 303 (laughed at).
93. James, Writings of General John Forbes, 112–13, 117; Bouquet Papers 2:65. On relations between Highland soldiers and Indians, see Colin G. Calloway, White People, Indians, and Highlanders: Tribal Peoples and Colonial Encounters in Scotland and America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), ch. 4, and Dziennik, Fatal Land, ch. 3.
94. Forbes HQ, reel 2, items 234, 237, 239, 277, 303.
95. Bouquet Papers 2:15–16, 41, 49, 74, 95, 98–102, 143, 180, 215–17, 253, 260, 292, 313, 315, 338, 405.
96. McDowell, Colonial Records of South Carolina: Documents relating to Indian Affairs, 1754–1762, 471.
97. Forbes HQ Papers, reel 2, items 239, 298, 325, 326, 353; George Reese, ed., The Official Papers of Francis Fauquier, Lieutenant Governor of Virginia, 1758–1768, 3 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1980–83), 1:16, 18, 24, 29.
98. PGW, Col. 5:224–27, 354; Writings of Washington 2:215–16.
99. Clary, George Washington’s First War, 244.
100. Bouquet Papers 2:221–22.
101. Kelton, “British and Indian War,” 778; James, Writings of General John Forbes, 117.
102. James, Writings of General John Forbes, 140, 176–77; Bouquet Papers 2:15 (adopted).
103. James, Writings of General John Forbes, 142.
104. Forbes HQ Papers, reel 3, item 440.
105. Forbes HQ Papers, reel 3, items, 473, 475, 477; Reese, Official Papers of Francis Fauquier 1:59–60.
106. PGW, Col. 5:275–76, 303; Reese, Official Papers of Francis Fauquier 1:50–51, 53.
107. PGW, Col. 5:416; Bouquet Papers 2:416, 418; James, Writings of General John Forbes, 188, 192.
Chapter 7: Frontier Advance and a Cherokee War
1. Linda Baumgarten, What Clothes Reveal: The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation in association with Yale University Press, 2002), 68.
2. J. Frederick Fausz, “ ‘Engaged in Enterprises Pregnant with Terror’: George Washington’s Formative Years among the Indians,” in George Washington and the Virginia Backcountry, ed. Warren R. Hofstra (Madison, WI: Madison House, 1998), 132–33; PGW, Col. 5:152, 193, 257–59, 282, 287, 290; Bouquet Papers 2:159.
3. PGW, Col. 5:285, 290.
4. Peter E. Russell, “Redcoats in the Wilderness: British Officers and Irregular Warfare in Europe and America, 1740 to 1760,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 35 (1978): 629–52; Bouquet Papers 2:124 (“delight”), 136 (“must comply”); Forbes HQ Papers, reel 3, item 512; Alfred Proctor James, ed., The Writings of General John Forbes relating to His Service in North America (Menasha, WI: Collegiate Press, 1938), 125 (“must comply”); David L. Preston, “ ‘Make Indians of Our White Men’: British Soldiers and Indian Warriors from Braddock’s to Forbes’s Campaigns, 1755–1758,” Pennsylvania History 74 (2007): 291–94.
6. Bouquet Papers 2:258.
7. Bouquet Papers 2:206, 222 (“Irruption”), 269.
8. Bouquet Papers 2:263–64.
9. Bouquet Papers 2:134.
10. James, Writings of General John Forbes, 141; Douglas R. Cubbison, The British Defeat of the French in Pennsylvania, 1758: A Military History of the Forbes Campaign against Fort Duquesne (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2010), 36, 86–95.
11. PGW, Col. 5:324, 353–60, 376, 389, 398, 424, 432–33 (to Robinson), 439–43 (to Fauquier); George Reese, ed., The Official Papers of Francis Fauquier, Lieutenant Governor of Virginia, 1758–1768, 3 vols. (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1980–83), 1:57–58, 66–67, 82; Executive Journals 6:108; Bouquet Papers 2:179, 273, 277–78, 298–303, 318–19, 343, 364, 443, 615.
12. Bouquet Papers 2:291.
13. Bouquet Papers 2:344; James, Writings of General John Forbes, 156–57, 171 (“unguarded letter”), 173, 199 (“like a Soldier”); Forbes HQ Papers, reel 3, item 464; Bernhard Knollenberg, George Washington: The Virginia Period, 1732–1775 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1964), 65–67.
14. Cubbison, British Defeat of the French in Pennsylvania, 36–37.
15. PGW, Col. 6:41–43.
16. James, Writings of General John Forbes, 205; Hugh Cleland, George Washington in the Ohio Valley (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1955), 199.
17. CRP 6:536, 671 (Morris).
18. PGW, Col. 5:109.
19. Scoouwa: James Smith’s Indian Captivity Narrative, 117.
20. NYCD 10:861.
21. James, Writings of General John Forbes, 115; Bouquet Papers 2:103, 304, 461.
22. WJP 9:786.
23. Forbes HQ Papers, reel 2, item 405; James, Writings of General John Forbes, 127, 138; WJP 9:945–51, 956–61; Paul Kelton, “The British and Indian War: Cherokee Power and the Fate of Empire in North America,” William and Mary Quarterly 69 (2012): 779–84.